- Ben Muller
The mental health of a person has a powerful effect on their overall wellbeing. An individual may be physically and socially fine; however they may suffer for any number of mental illnesses that keeps them from living a normal and happy life. In Western society, it is reported that more than one in three people will fulfil the criteria for at least one diagnosis of mental illness during their lifetime (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). This suggests that mental illness can be a major difficulty for many people, and does require treatment. In Western society, we visit doctors and mental health specialists such as psychologists and psychiatrists who are qualified to diagnose and treat mental illnesses. Treatment can involve psychotherapy, medication and in some cases, psychosurgery and deep brain stimulation (National Institute of Mental Health, 2006). However, the treatment of mental illnesses is completely different in other cultures, where instead of a psychologist or a psychiatrist, a spiritual leader or a Shaman is responsible for the wellbeing of the members of the community (Eliade, 1964). This essay will explain the practice of mental health experts in Western society, and will further examine the methods used by Shamans in other cultures. Examples of Shamans among the Inuit people as well as Shamans in Siberia and their methods of treatment will be compared to mental health experts in the Western World.
When comparing the definition of a mental health expert in Western society to that of a Shaman in a completely different culture, it can be said that a psychologist or a psychiatrist is the mediator between our minds and our body, whereas a Shaman is a mediator between the community and a spiritual world (Eliade, 1964). A mental health expert is trained to understand the biology and neurochemistry of the brain and how this affects our mental health. They understand how to counsel a person to change their lifestyle to best deal with an illness, or diagnose chemical imbalances that require medication to be resolved. The study of psychology in the Western world is purely scientific, and therefore mental illness is usually dealt with via a purely biomedical approach (Compass & Gotlib, 2002). On the other hand, a Shaman takes a very spiritual and community based approach to treating illnesses. For a Shaman, healing begins by first communicating with the spirit world. A Shaman does this by entering into an altered state of consciousness through a variety of different methods, and will treat illnesses by communicating with the evil spirits responsible (Eliade, 1964). This is a very vague explanation of one of the methods used by Shamans; however, communicating with the spirit world and treating illnesses caused by evil spirits are two fundamental aspects which define a Shaman (Eliade, 1964). It also makes the differences between the methods used by Shamans and mental health experts quite clear for the foundation of this essay.
A Shaman is the leader of a community, as well as the physical and mental healer (Eliade, 1964). The process of healing usually involves the Shaman contacting the spirit world, by entering into an altered state of consciousness. Shamans enter an altered state of consciousness through a variety of methods. In some cultures a Shaman will enter this state through methods similar to common forms of meditation practiced in the Western world, or by ingesting entheogens found in various plants (Hoppál, 2006). Sometimes, a Shaman will enter a trance by stimulating their sympathetic nervous system to extreme levels through activities such as dancing, drumming and sword-fighting (Hoppál, 2006). In the case of Shamans in Siberia, drumming is often the technique used by to enter an altered state of consciousness. Another technique incorporated by these Shaman, is the use of overtone singing and the mimicking of naturally occurring sounds (Siikala, 1978). Overtone singing is commonly referred to as throat-singing and is a distinct sound created by the air being pushed from the lungs through the vocal chords. This is a technique that is almost exclusively used by Shamans from Siberian tribes (Siikala, 1978).
There are in fact, many different ethnic groups in Siberia that practice Shamanism. Their cultures are widely different; however, the techniques the Shamans use are very similar (Siikala, 1978). Once a Shaman enters an altered state of consciousness, they enter a dream like state called a soul journey. Their soul leaves their body to enter the spirit world (Eliade, 1964). The soul journeys experienced by the Shamans of these cultures are all completely different; however they all involve many dangers and challenges that the Shaman must conquer on their way. For example, during a soul journey for a Siberian Shaman of the Oroch people, the Shaman is often turned into a fish by the Sky Deity’s wife, Khadau Mamachani (Avrorin & Kozminskii, 1955). The Shaman must then swim as a fish downstream, towards an ocean, avoiding many dangers on the way, until they reach the ocean itself where the great sky deity, Khadau himself awaits them, only to harpoon the fish, if the soul is not strong enough (Avrorin & Kozminskii. 1955). There are many similar stories which describe the perilous journey a Shaman must take while they are in an altered state of consciousness and it is their bravery, strength and importance, that gives them such a high status in their culture.
A description of a Shaman’s soul journey was published by the Russian historian, Andrei Znamensky (2003). It provides a valuable insight into soul journeys, and is unique in the fact that it provides a detailed description of a Shaman on a soul journey for the purpose of healing a community member’s mental illness. The Shaman is from another Siberian culture, the Altaians, and similarly to the Shaman of the Oroch people, faces many dangers during their soul journey. Once the Shaman has been notified of the community member’s illness, they enter an altered state of consciousness through repeated drumming and the practice of overtone singing (Siikala, 1978). The Shamans goal is to enter the underworld and journey to the residence of the deity, Tehmir-Kahn, who is responsible for the illness. During this soul journey, the Shaman is faced with many dangers such as, slippery narrow bridges suspended over bottomless lakes, tempting spirits of promiscuous women, and animals that prey on the souls of travelling Shaman. It is claimed that an unsuccessful soul journey will result in death of the Shaman’s soul. If the Shaman does reach their destination, they must ask Tehmir-Kahn to relieve the patient from an illness, after which Tehmir-Kahn usually requests a sacrifice in exchange (Karunovskaia, 2005). It can be seen from this description of a soul journey, that similarly to a mental health expert in Western society, the job of a Shaman is very difficult and important. Whether their methods are effective of not is arguable, however it is important to realise that the people of these cultures are very strong believers in pleasing the various Deity’s, to solve negative situations in their lives.
Another culture that practices Shamanism, are the Inuit people. An aspect of Inuit Shamanism that is fairly unique to their culture is the belief in soul dualism (Vitebsky & Piers, 1995). Soul dualism is the idea that a person’s own soul is linked with the soul of a dead person or animal. The person’s own soul is referred to as the “body soul” and the adopted soul is the “free soul”, which can leave the physical body (Hoppál, 1997). Unlike other shamanic cultures where the Shaman’s own soul leaves their body, an Inuit Shaman will often send the free soul on a spirit journey while their body soul remains behind to continue managing the body functions of the Shaman’s physical body (Merkur, 1985).
Inuit people believe that a person has many souls, and that illness is a result of soul-theft (Merkur, 1985). Soul-theft is when an enemy Shaman or an evil spirit has stolen a soul from a person, which results in a corresponding mental illness. Similarly to the soul journeys discussed, an Inuit Shaman will also enter an altered state of consciousness to begin healing. The techniques used by Inuit Shaman to enter an altered state of consciousness are common amongst many cultures. The method usually involves dancing, drumming and chanting. As the Inuit people believe that a soul has been stolen, it is up to the Shaman to enter the spirit world and find the soul, or retrieve the stolen soul from an evil spirit or Shaman that has taken it (Menovščikov,1968). Once again, this can be a dangerous process, as the Shaman may need to engage in battle, or negotiate with an evil spirit to retrieve the lost soul (Merkur, 1985). Sometimes, rather than a soul being stolen, a person may become ill because their body has been invaded by a “dark spirit”. In this case, the Shaman exorcises the evil spirit out of the patient’s body to cure them of their illness (Merkur, 1985).
As it can be seen from these examples of Shamanism, the healing process is completely different to that of a mental health expert in Western Society. Shamans are not only the mediators between the spirit world and community to cure illness, but to find answers to almost any problem faced by the community. Just as a psychologist or a psychiatrist is a very important member of society, the Shaman is even more so, as they are the leaders of their communities. In the two cultures discussed, there was no mention of any sort of medication or life-style changes recommended for the patients, but the Shaman simply cured mental illnesses by creating a harmonious balance with the responsible Deity through a sacrifice, or by retrieving a lost soul to restore mental wellbeing for the patient. It can be said that they believe in a system of balance and harmony, similar to Karma, a cause and effect system where something needs to be restored or sacrificed, or someone needs to be pleased or negotiated with. In conclusion, it is clear that Shamanistic healing is nothing like the treatment a patient would experience in the Western world, however Shamanism is very widely practiced and plays a very large part in many different cultures. The methods may be difficult to comprehend, however to a person part of the community, and especially someone with an illness, the methods used by Shamans could be very comforting for the patient’s wellbeing.
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