Treating Mental Illness – Psychology, Psychiatry and Shamanism.

- Ben Muller

The mental health of a person has a powerful effect on their overall wellbeing. An individual may be physically and socially fine; however they may suffer for any number of mental illnesses that keeps them from living a normal and happy life. In Western society, it is reported that more than one in three people will fulfil the criteria for at least one diagnosis of mental illness during their lifetime (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). This suggests that mental illness can be a major difficulty for many people, and does require treatment. In Western society, we visit doctors and mental health specialists such as psychologists and psychiatrists who are qualified to diagnose and treat mental illnesses. Treatment can involve psychotherapy, medication and in some cases, psychosurgery and deep brain stimulation (National Institute of Mental Health, 2006). However, the treatment of mental illnesses is completely different in other cultures, where instead of a psychologist or a psychiatrist, a spiritual leader or a Shaman is responsible for the wellbeing of the members of the community (Eliade, 1964). This essay will explain the practice of mental health experts in Western society, and will further examine the methods used by Shamans in other cultures. Examples of Shamans among the Inuit people as well as Shamans in Siberia and their methods of treatment will be compared to mental health experts in the Western World.

When comparing the definition of a mental health expert in Western society to that of a Shaman in a completely different culture, it can be said that a psychologist or a psychiatrist is the mediator between our minds and our body, whereas a Shaman is a mediator between the community and a spiritual world (Eliade, 1964). A mental health expert is trained to understand the biology and neurochemistry of the brain and how this affects our mental health. They understand how to counsel a person to change their lifestyle to best deal with an illness, or diagnose chemical imbalances that require medication to be resolved. The study of psychology in the Western world is purely scientific, and therefore mental illness is usually dealt with via a purely biomedical approach (Compass & Gotlib, 2002). On the other hand, a Shaman takes a very spiritual and community based approach to treating illnesses. For a Shaman, healing begins by first communicating with the spirit world. A Shaman does this by entering into an altered state of consciousness through a variety of different methods, and will treat illnesses by communicating with the evil spirits responsible (Eliade, 1964). This is a very vague explanation of one of the methods used by Shamans; however, communicating with the spirit world and treating illnesses caused by evil spirits are two fundamental aspects which define a Shaman (Eliade, 1964). It also makes the differences between the methods used by Shamans and mental health experts quite clear for the foundation of this essay.

A Shaman is the leader of a community, as well as the physical and mental healer (Eliade, 1964). The process of healing usually involves the Shaman contacting the spirit world, by entering into an altered state of consciousness. Shamans enter an altered state of consciousness through a variety of methods. In some cultures a Shaman will enter this state through methods similar to common forms of meditation practiced in the Western world, or by ingesting entheogens found in various plants (Hoppál, 2006). Sometimes, a Shaman will enter a trance by stimulating their sympathetic nervous system to extreme levels through activities such as dancing, drumming and sword-fighting (Hoppál, 2006). In the case of Shamans in Siberia, drumming is often the technique used by to enter an altered state of consciousness. Another technique incorporated by these Shaman, is the use of overtone singing and the mimicking of naturally occurring sounds (Siikala, 1978). Overtone singing is commonly referred to as throat-singing and is a distinct sound created by the air being pushed from the lungs through the vocal chords. This is a technique that is almost exclusively used by Shamans from Siberian tribes (Siikala, 1978).

There are in fact, many different ethnic groups in Siberia that practice Shamanism. Their cultures are widely different; however, the techniques the Shamans use are very similar (Siikala, 1978). Once a Shaman enters an altered state of consciousness, they enter a dream like state called a soul journey. Their soul leaves their body to enter the spirit world (Eliade, 1964). The soul journeys experienced by the Shamans of these cultures are all completely different; however they all involve many dangers and challenges that the Shaman must conquer on their way. For example, during a soul journey for a Siberian Shaman of the Oroch people, the Shaman is often turned into a fish by the Sky Deity’s wife, Khadau Mamachani (Avrorin & Kozminskii, 1955). The Shaman must then swim as a fish downstream, towards an ocean, avoiding many dangers on the way, until they reach the ocean itself where the great sky deity, Khadau himself awaits them, only to harpoon the fish, if the soul is not strong enough (Avrorin & Kozminskii. 1955). There are many similar stories which describe the perilous journey a Shaman must take while they are in an altered state of consciousness and it is their bravery, strength and importance, that gives them such a high status in their culture.

A description of a Shaman’s soul journey was published by the Russian historian, Andrei Znamensky (2003). It provides a valuable insight into soul journeys, and is unique in the fact that it provides a detailed description of a Shaman on a soul journey for the purpose of healing a community member’s mental illness. The Shaman is from another Siberian culture, the Altaians, and similarly to the Shaman of the Oroch people, faces many dangers during their soul journey. Once the Shaman has been notified of the community member’s illness, they enter an altered state of consciousness through repeated drumming and the practice of overtone singing (Siikala, 1978). The Shamans goal is to enter the underworld and journey to the residence of the deity, Tehmir-Kahn, who is responsible for the illness. During this soul journey, the Shaman is faced with many dangers such as, slippery narrow bridges suspended over bottomless lakes, tempting spirits of promiscuous women, and animals that prey on the souls of travelling Shaman. It is claimed that an unsuccessful soul journey will result in death of the Shaman’s soul. If the Shaman does reach their destination, they must ask Tehmir-Kahn to relieve the patient from an illness, after which Tehmir-Kahn usually requests a sacrifice in exchange (Karunovskaia, 2005). It can be seen from this description of a soul journey, that similarly to a mental health expert in Western society, the job of a Shaman is very difficult and important. Whether their methods are effective of not is arguable, however it is important to realise that the people of these cultures are very strong believers in pleasing the various Deity’s, to solve negative situations in their lives.

Another culture that practices Shamanism, are the Inuit people. An aspect of Inuit Shamanism that is fairly unique to their culture is the belief in soul dualism (Vitebsky & Piers, 1995). Soul dualism is the idea that a person’s own soul is linked with the soul of a dead person or animal. The person’s own soul is referred to as the “body soul” and the adopted soul is the “free soul”, which can leave the physical body (Hoppál, 1997). Unlike other shamanic cultures where the Shaman’s own soul leaves their body, an Inuit Shaman will often send the free soul on a spirit journey while their body soul remains behind to continue managing the body functions of the Shaman’s physical body (Merkur, 1985).

Inuit people believe that a person has many souls, and that illness is a result of soul-theft (Merkur, 1985). Soul-theft is when an enemy Shaman or an evil spirit has stolen a soul from a person, which results in a corresponding mental illness. Similarly to the soul journeys discussed, an Inuit Shaman will also enter an altered state of consciousness to begin healing. The techniques used by Inuit Shaman to enter an altered state of consciousness are common amongst many cultures. The method usually involves dancing, drumming and chanting. As the Inuit people believe that a soul has been stolen, it is up to the Shaman to enter the spirit world and find the soul, or retrieve the stolen soul from an evil spirit or Shaman that has taken it (Menovščikov,1968). Once again, this can be a dangerous process, as the Shaman may need to engage in battle, or negotiate with an evil spirit to retrieve the lost soul (Merkur, 1985). Sometimes, rather than a soul being stolen, a person may become ill because their body has been invaded by a “dark spirit”. In this case, the Shaman exorcises the evil spirit out of the patient’s body to cure them of their illness (Merkur, 1985).

As it can be seen from these examples of Shamanism, the healing process is completely different to that of a mental health expert in Western Society. Shamans are not only the mediators between the spirit world and community to cure illness, but to find answers to almost any problem faced by the community. Just as a psychologist or a psychiatrist is a very important member of society, the Shaman is even more so, as they are the leaders of their communities. In the two cultures discussed, there was no mention of any sort of medication or life-style changes recommended for the patients, but the Shaman simply cured mental illnesses by creating a harmonious balance with the responsible Deity through a sacrifice, or by retrieving a lost soul to restore mental wellbeing for the patient. It can be said that they believe in a system of balance and harmony, similar to Karma, a cause and effect system where something needs to be restored or sacrificed, or someone needs to be pleased or negotiated with. In conclusion, it is clear that Shamanistic healing is nothing like the treatment a patient would experience in the Western world, however Shamanism is very widely practiced and plays a very large part in many different cultures. The methods may be difficult to comprehend, however to a person part of the community, and especially someone with an illness, the methods used by Shamans could be very comforting for the patient’s wellbeing.

 

Gazzaniga, M.S., Heatherton, T.F. (2006). ‘Psychological Science’. New York: W.W.       Norton & Company, Inc, pp: 25.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2006). ‘Information about Mental Illness and the      Brain.’ Retrieved October 20, 2008, from http://science-     education.nih.gov/supplements/nih5/Mental/guide/info-mental-c.htm

Eliade, M. (1964). ‘Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy’, Bollingen Series          LXXVI, Pantheon Books, NYNY, pp: 3-7.

Compass B, Gotlib, I. (2002). ‘Introduction to Clinical Psychology’. New York, NY:           McGraw Hill, pp: 74.

Hoppál, M. (2006). ‘Music of Shamanic Healing’. in Gerhard Kilger: Macht Musik. Musik            als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben, pp: 141-147.

Siikala, A. L. (1978). ‘The Rite Technique of the Siberian Shaman’. FF Communications          220. Helsinki, pp: 127-129.

Avrorin, Kozminskii. (1955).  ‘Shamans Journeys through the Eyes of the Oroch             Natives’. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 131-134

Karunovskaia, A. (2005). ‘The Universe as Perceived by the Altaians’. Kluwer Academic             Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 151-154 

Znamenski, A. (2003). ‘Shamanism in Siberia : Russian Records of Indigenous Spirituality’. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 131-278

Menovščikov, G. A.  (1968). ‘Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the     Asiatic Eskimoes’, in Diószegi, Vilmos: Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in     Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó pp: 243

Vitebsky, P. (1995). ‘The Shaman (Living Wisdom)’. Duncan Baird, London, pp: 175-     246.

Hoppál, M. (1997) ‘Nature Worship in Siberian Shamanism’. Retrieved October 21,        2008, from http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm

Merkur, D. (1985). ‘Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit’. A         Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, pp: 208-290. 

Satori as an Altered State of Consciousness

Satori as an Altered State of Consciousness

Whilst exploring the locations within the community where altered states of consciousness may be found the Queensland Zen Centre-Dae Kwang Sa, was investigated. It resides at Robertson on the south side of Brisbane. The Abbes at the centre, Zen master Sen Shin, was open and welcoming to the centre. There are two practices held weekly, Sunday mornings and Monday evenings, that are open for individuals who do not live in residence at the centre to attend, anyone from the community is welcome to attend or begin practicing. The group size is not set. An interview was conducted with the Abbes in relation to altered states of consciousness and the practise of Korean Zen Buddhism, and I participated in a number of practises at the same time. Through these avenues the relationship between Zen Buddhism, ritual and altered states of consciousness will be delved into. An account for historical purposes illuminates the importance of ritual and tradition in the transmission of the sacred. The rites, rituals and performance rituals contained within the practise remain the doorway to reaching satori, which is Zen enlightenment. This altered state of consciousness is enquired into.

Bodhidharma was an Indian monk in the fifth century and is known as the patriarch of Zen Buddhism in China (Suzuki, 1960). Within the T'ang Dynasty, the lineage for Zen Buddhism can be traced back to two masters Baso and Sekito. He is renowned for the practise of Pi Kuan "wall meditation" for nine-years. His work lasted approximately 40 years and he records that he lived for 150 years or more. This is where the Ch'an sect within China has its roots (Lanciotti, 1949). One of the legends says that he then travelled to Japan and was found as a beggar by Shotoku Taishi a historical figure within Zen; they then shared poetry (Suzuki, 1960). Within this Korean Zen Buddhist tradition the lineage begins with Bodhidharma. Zen Master Seung Sahn from the international Kwan Um School of Zen founded the Queensland Zen centre-Dae Kwang Sa or "Great Light Temple" in 1969. The historical lineage of the tradition shows a transmission from one generation to the next of a Buddhist practise that bridges the "profane and the sacred" (Van Gennep, 1960. pp.1.) via the rituals and rites of passage.

The precepts are likened to rites and there are 5-500 precepts. They are an underlying moral and ethical code for the benefit of all beings. A Ceremony is held for taking the different precepts. The first precept is: I vow to abstain from taking life, the second precept is: I vow to abstain from taking things not given, the third precept is: I vow to abstain from misconduct done in lust, the fourth precept is: I vow to abstain from lying and the fifth precept is: I vow to abstain from intoxicants, taken to induce heedlessness. The ceremonies include chanting of sutras, chanting of mantras, lighting candles, bowing prostrations and offering incense. A Dharma name is given to the new members along with formal robes and Kasa. The Kasa is a brown piece of fabric that is worn over the top of the robe and represents the robes that the Buddha wore. Ritual is best presented as a performance an individual carries out that is prescribed by the surrounding environment. The environment affords the ritual. Stein & Stein (2008) suggest the interrelationship between myth and ritual resides within the social and cultural mythos to imbibe knowledge, rules, stability and social cohesion. The participation in a ritual expresses acceptance, whilst the repetition of the ritual provides validity and sacredness. The rituals performed within Zen Buddhism are for cultivating a Zen mind in order to relieve suffering and benefit all beings.

The rituals within the practise are numerous. Members of the centre wear robes and Kasa whilst sitting within the Dharma room; visitors and guests wear normal attire. The Dharma room is a sacred place. Upon entering the dharma room all participants are to bow towards the alter at the centre front of the room. Upon the alter are candles, incense, a statue of Buddha, moktak, juk be, candle snuff, offering bowls, flowers and some lotus flowers that contain pictures of people that have recently passed away. A large bell approximately 60-70cm high resides at the left hand side of the alter. It is used for timing chanting. Blue padded mats are placed around the room on the floor equidistant with a round, black, meditation cushion on each. The teachers mat faces the alter. The meditation cushion is a different colour. Each place indicates where different practitioners may sit for example dharma teachers, senior students, the student that plays the moktak and the student that times the meditation practise. Visitors and guests are welcomed and each is given their own mat for practice.

The practice is open to all members of the community and I found the clientele to be culturally diverse. A warm friendly atmosphere pervades the centre and any uncertainties are soon put to rest. The number of practitioners varies on any one night depending on the number of visitors that have arrived at the centre. There can be as few as four. The teacher in residence overseas all formal aspects of Zen training, these include, sitting, walking and bowing meditation, chanting of sutras and koan practise. Once everyone is seated within the Dharma room the practise begins with chanting to the sound of the Moktak, which maintains the timing. Following chanting is an alternation between walking and seated meditation. Upon completion all practitioners complete three bowing prostrations and say together the four great vows: Sentient beings are numberless we vow to save them all, delusions are endless we vow to cut through them all, the teachings are infinite we vow to learn them all, the Buddha way is inconceivable, we vow to attain it. The relationship between the ritual aspects of the practise and altered states of consciousness is best illustrated through an interview with Zen Master Sen Shin.

My first question was: Would you say people who practise Zen Buddhist meditation experience altered states of consciousness? Are altered states of consciousness used within the practise for healing, divination, contacting spirits and so forth? I was asked for a definition of altered states of consciousness and provided a definition of Ordinary wakening states in contrast to altered states of consciousness as described by Tart (1972). Baruss (2003) defines ordinary waking states by describing numerous psychological theories that include, computational theory, the theory of inner perception and behaviour theory these theories were described in relation to the everyday phenomenon of being human. Included in these are fantasy, self- perception, thinking, imagination and daydreaming. In contrast Tart (1972) describes general characteristics of Alterations in consciousness and the ways these are produced. The alterations included: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking. The methods for producing altered states of consciousness included: Reducing or changing sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, heightening sensory input by bombardment, prolonged mental involvement, decreasing alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens.
Sen Shin replied: It is, but it isn't. Zen mind is not dependent on dualistic thinking mind.
With a dualistic mind is time and space, right and wrong. Zen mind does not use filters created by habits, conditioning and memories.

Cutting through dualism.
All beings have Zen mind, it is not limited to anything that is, religion, sex, culture.
Practice is to cultivate a Zen mind for the purpose of benefiting all beings.
Through the practise of Zen the unconscious becomes conscious and that is an altered state.
Vividity is the Zen mind; waking up to the awareness of all things is an altered state.
Use the altered state for the benefit of all beings not for egoistic development.
I asked how does the altered state benefit all beings?

Sen Shin asked: Where does suffering come from?
I replied: From ourselves, as a practitioner I would say my mood states affect others.
Sen Shin replied: Attachment to dualistic thought causes suffering, attachment to the thought I am.
When oneness is experienced there is no more suffering, no this nor that for example, no suffering and no one to experience suffering and no one to impose suffering on others.

When experience of oneself is clear then helping others to experience this is beneficial as well.
On the subject of perceiving Karma past and present, divination, spirits, healing and mind to mind communication. Sen shin stated: Zen is not about developing these things, they are a by-product. Within Zen altered states of consciousness can be used for the benefit of beings as long as there is no ego involved. One needs to be completely open as a conduit; one's personal needs are set aside and dissolve when altered state is engaged.

Suzuki (1996. pp. 83) defines Zen satori as "acquiring a new viewpoint on life". Sen Shin says: In order to understand the subtle mind you need to experience it; it cannot be experienced through a wordy description. The altered state of consciousness within Zen Buddhism called satori is experienced through the practise; however, the aim of the practise is not to induce trance but to intuitively look at the world and oneself (Suzuki, 1996).

The lineage of Zen Buddhism represents how the use of ritual can transcend the everyday. Pathways of ritual have been followed by generations of Zen monks in order to support the spiritual development of the practitioners. Driver (1992) believes the ordering of life generated by ritual extends into many social systems. The perception of the environment through the senses is ritualised via our experiences. The moral, ethical code within the precepts remains and is still pertinent in the present. The openness of the Zen centre provides an avenue for those who are searching within themselves. Reps (1971) has defined Zen practise as self-searching for ones' true nature through meditation with simplicity, self- discipline and leaving out formalism. The ineffable nature of Zen Buddhism is apparent when trying to define Satori. Ken-sho is another word that has been used in place of Satori. It means to "see essence or nature" (Suzuki, 1996. pp. 104) representing a noetic essence. Not all altered states of consciousness are enormous mystical experiences produced with loud repetitive vibrations and sometimes the means is more important than the ends.
Wendy Kay

Bibliography
Baruss, I. (2003). Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Driver, T. F. (1992). The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform our Lives and our Communities. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Lanciotti, L. (1949). New historic contribution to the person of Bodhidharma. Artibus Asiae. 12. 141-145.
Reps, P. (1971). Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. New York: The Penguin Group.
Stein, R. L., & Stein, P. L. (2008). The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1960). Manual of Zen Buddhism. New York: Random House, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1996). Buddhism: Selected Writings of D. T. Suzuki. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Groups, Inc.
Tart, C. T. (1972). Altered States of Consciousness. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Van Gennep, A. (1960). The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

The Modern Day Shaman on Advice for Humanity

The Modern Day Shaman on Advice for Humanity
By Abigale Johnson

Shamanism, viewed as a state of mind rather than an institutionalized religion, embraces the love and concern for the self, family, community and environment (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin Johnson, a practicing shamanic healer, has been working with shamanic traditions of various indigenous tribes, particularly the Mexican Huichol and Peruvian Shipibo peoples for the last decade. In an interview with Kevin, he revealed many important aspects of shamanic knowledge, and how it is absolutely vital for the existence of humanity, for this knowledge to be honored and used to bring balance back to the earth. Although Kevin draws on many of the ancient shamanic teachings in his work as a healer, and fills the role of the shaman as he is constantly active in bridging the spiritual and physical worlds, his work is not so formalized as many traditional cultures. There is some controversy among shamanic cultures about spreading the ancient knowledge to outside communities, but Kevin, along with many new and traditional shamans, believe that the movement of the western world back to spiritual awareness and honoring of the gifts of nature is necessary for harmony of the earth (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) As a modern day shaman, Kevin has learned how to connect with the Great Spirit for personal growth, the bettering of the western society, and returning balance to the earth.

Before the shaman begins his life work, he must be called to or inherit it, apprentice in the ancient ways and become initiated as a healer (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin began his shamanic path listening to and following signs that he was to come into great power, spiritual awakening and be given the task of his true life’s work, and which lead him to an introduction to shamanism workshop. There, in his first journey into non-ordinary reality, which shamans consider to be the access into direct communication with the spirit world and big power, Kevin received his call. He was presented with a vision of a bear, buffalo, salmon and a horse, connected by a sacred hoop, and came to understand that it was his life task to keep this hoop alive, continuing the wisdom of shamanic traditions. In this age of continual progression of the western world and increasing dependence on ordinary reality (tonal) and suppression of non-ordinary reality (nagual), sacred knowledge is being lost, and the connections with spirit and the natural way of the world not honored. Shamanic tradition believes in the balance of these realities, and the role of the shaman is to harmonize and blend these energies and keep the flow of natural process (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Rather than coming into some new knowledge, with Kevin’s call to shamanism and subsequent training as a shamanic healer, he felt as though he was being reunited with ways of practice which he’s been living through many lives. In this way, many westerners are in fact feeling a familiarity in the shamanic path, and are drawn to share in the responsibilities of bringing harmony to the earth.

To become a shaman, a person must then go through a process of apprenticeship, ritual and initiation. Although traditional shamanic cultures may have very precise ways this must be done, the purpose of initiations is to prepare the shaman for the dangerous feat of being the mediator between the spirit and physical world for healing (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin’s experience included an informal apprenticeship with two shamans initiated under the Huichol and Shipibo traditions, where he prepared for initiations by building relationships with spirit and natural teachers. This included a 2-year intensive, learning from plant medicine, learning icaros, or sacred songs necessary for Shipibo ceremony, as well as leading and assisting in many ceremonies. After years of preparations, Kevin and his spiritual community were invited by the Shipibo peoples for the 7-day initiation tobacco diet, necessary for the healing methods used by the Shipibo. Through journeying to the nagual, shamans must build relationships with allies from the natural world, both plant and animal, which become guardians for various shamanic processes (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). For the shipibo and many other cultures, tobacco is a protective ally, and necessary for shipibo “extraction” where the shaman sucks out the illness of the patient, a very dangerous process and only possible under the protection of tobacco. The initiation process, varying in form, also includes is the ritual death, where the initiate sheds the old patterns, realities and boundaries of thought in order to come into alignment with true self and spirit (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). This can be in the form of a severe crisis, with years of feeling lost, but for Kevin, the ritual death is something he experiences constantly, as it is a constant shift into enlightenment, and constant breakdown of the limited definitions of self provided by society. He conveys that entering the nagual state of non-ordinary reality is important in this breakdown of barriers, as it breaks down dualistic thinking and allows him to enter an expansive place where his true spiritual identity can stretch its legs.

This purification of the personal essence is also connected to surrendering to the power of spirit and letting go of fear. Kevin relates that the biggest fear to get over is complete surrender, even to death, which he, as shamans in all traditions, must learn to accept (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). We have been imprinted to be in control of everything, and the way of the shaman is to recognize that we’re not, and to trust in spirit to drive the car, even if it’s off a cliff. In this surrendering and letting go of the “personal history” (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) and false perceptions of self, the shaman is able to come into the true self that is one with spirit and everything, and in this frame, lives with endless possibility and power.

As Kevin lives in western society and not in a tribe in the Amazon, where this shamanic knowledge is very much a part of the culture and normal way of being, he faces difficulties blending the two worlds. Shamanic tradition is about using the heart center as the portal to the spirit world, it’s about the power of the nagual, and combining that power with knowledge of the tonal to navigate the spiritual and physical worlds in harmony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). But, western society focuses only on the tonal: knowledge, thinking only with the head, and tries to convert the nagual, the sacred, into ordinary material, available for exploitation. The shaman’s responsibility is to build a sacred bridge between the physical and spirit world, honoring the connection and keeping it in balance, which is done through ceremony (Alderidge D, 2000; Villoldo A, 1987). An example of balancing with ceremony in Kevin’s work is the Andean “despacho” ritual, honoring mother earth, asking forgiveness, and activating energies in the land to bring harmony. Such rituals often take particular forms depending on the individual, but there are also some general aspects used in honoring the spirits and healing. Most rituals begin with calling in and honoring the four directions, sky, earth, and surrounding land and other spirit allies to come and work for the healing of the journeyers and reconnection with the land (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).

The spirits and directions then become a container for the ritual, and Kevin uses them to symbolically move through and guide different parts of the journey. In ceremony, through the use of altered consciousness, achieved through drumming, other music and often medicine plants, the shaman must be highly alert and perceptive, and act both as a vehicle for spirit to do the work, and a conductor, reading the room and directing spirit appropriately, to fit the energies of fellow journeyers and the intentions of the ceremony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). In Kevin’s work with the shipibos, this is done through the singing of icaros, where the shaman leading a ceremony uses the spirit songs to bring forth and shift different energies. Each ceremony must also be closed by thanking and releasing the allies and directions for their guidance through the ceremony and is usually followed by an integration process with the group of journeyers (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).

As the shaman has a foot in both worlds also as a healer, Kevin refers to the shaman as a “hollow reed,” directly connecting spirit and patient. The most important thing is, through entering the nagual, to allow spirit to flow through you, get out of the way and be a vehicle for spirit. As Kevin journeys outside of himself to let spirit flow through, he must ask for protection from his allies, and often uses sage and tobacco to purify and protect himself and the patient from negative energies that might appear in this vulnerable state. After this, similar to many forms of spiritual healing practices, Kevin uses different instruments and techniques, which scan the patient’s body for ailments, and act to direct the healing process (McClean S 2006). In these sessions, both shaman and the patient shift into the nagual, the shaman as the mediator between worlds, and the patient receiving the direct information from spirit to assist in the ultimate healing. Although Kevin and many other shamans or healers may generally use similar techniques and allies for each of their healing sessions, a shamanic healing will never be the same, as the shaman is merely a conductor for spirit, and the detection and work on individual ailments will differ every time (McClean S 2006). Although Kevin does individual healing sessions, he also believes that there is great power in working together as a community in ritual, as the ultimate goal of shamanism is to regain balance and recognize the connection of all that is spirit through collective experience.

Community and the responsibilities of a shaman to his community are very important, and Kevin considers himself part of what he calls a global community/tribe of people sharing a common quest for pure consciousness. He and other healers in his area hold by donation healing circles weekly as well as individual consultation, holding true to his responsibility to protect the sacred hoop and support others in their path to the one. He, as well as shamans all over the world (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987), holds a responsibility as a steward of the earth, again as a sacred bridge between heaven (or spirit world) and earth. The shamanic perspective, recognizing the connection of all that is, is vital for the survival of humans on earth as we must reconnect with and honor the earth and all that it has given us. The shaman uses the non-ordinary reality, the nagual, to see this connection (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987); Kevin has seen it as a sacred tree, beating with the heart of all in the universe, recognizing the flow of spirit through all that exists. To become a bearer of light, be connected, walk with consciousness, and live in harmonic relationship with the world is a lesson that humanity as a whole is called upon to honor.

References

Thanks to Kevin Johnson for sharing his experiences and wisdom.

Aldridge, D. (2000). Spirituality, Healing and Medicine: Return to the Silence. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London: pg 178-179.
McClean, S. (2006). An Ethnography of Crystal and Spiritual Healers in Northern England. The Edwin Mellen Press Ltd., New York: pg 155-164.
Villoldo, A and Krippner, S (1987). Healing States. Simon and Schuster Inc., New York: Ch2, all of Part II.

trance and childbirth

This paper will focus on the relationship between trance and non pharmacological childbirth. I will draw on both academic literature and my personal experiences of birthing throughout this essay. First I will locate my experiences of childbirth. A brief outline of some physiological and psychological processes that occur to a woman during childbirth will provide insight into the ways in which altered states of consciousness (ASC), come into being. The various supportive options a woman may utilise during child birth and their relationship to trance will then be examined. Finally the possible meanings ascribed to the ritual dance created by the journey of childbirth, will be underlined.

I birthed my two daughters without drugs, and on invitation have fulfilled a supportive role on ten occasions for birthing members of my community and their partners. Some of the women chose pharmacological pain relief and others did not. Each journey was unique and this paper aims to draw on both exogenous and endogenous strategies which may be employed by women for the purposes of pain management during birth. The birth sites I have visited were at various locations in Brisbane; residential addresses, private hospitals, birth centres and public hospitals. Also present at various stages of these births were other support people and medical staff, including midwives and obstetricians of diverse ages, gender and ethnicity.

Many women begin preparation for childbirth during pregnancy and may obtain information from a plethora of sources such as, books, certain members of their community, medical staff and pregnancy/birth classes (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996; Maher, 2008). It is here that a woman may become aware of the many physiological changes that occur during childbirth that effect the uterus, cervix, bladder, urethra, pelvic structure, skeletal system, perineum, lumbar sacral region and more (Lowe, 1996). Lowe (1996) confirms that the psychological perception of acute pain arises in response to the transference of sensory input via the physiological stresses outlined above, to the central nervous system. Winkleman (1997) asserts that both distressing sensory stimulation and severe pain may induce an ASC. He concludes that ASC works to decrease the sympathetic response from the nervous system and aid in relaxation of the mind and body. This paper argues that a woman’s psychological and physiological responses to acute pain, and the strategies utilised for pain management during childbirth, may be drivers that are intrinsic to the maintenance of trance within the birthing experience (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996).

I discovered during the early stages of birthing that my pain was alleviated by the rhythmic and circular rotation of my hips. As I felt each contraction build, I turned my awareness to my breath and focused my attention here. While the momentum of each contraction reached its crescendo and subsided, I consciously brought my focus back to the breath. I have a deep affinity with the ocean and felt the physiological experience of each contraction was comparable to the ebb, peak and flow of a wave, this became my visual imagery. Winkleman (1997) confirms that motor movement, breathing and visualisation techniques such as those outlined above, act as drivers for ASC. I continued to combine the above practices for many hours as the onset of each wave threatened to engulf me. At some times between contractions, I was aware of my body trembling but recall having no concept of time. The relevant birthing literature asserts that women often report losing their sense of temporal reality and memory during birthing (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Maher, 2008). Schechner (2007) includes loss of memory and time, and the presentation of certain bodily behaviours such as shaking and trembling, as characteristic features of trance. Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that trance may act as a safety mechanism during childbirth, by creating projectable distance between the ‘body in labour’, and other embodied perceptions of the self.

I cannot only credit my own body and mind in enabling me to cope with the sensations of acute pain that I experienced during childbirth. Support people play a vital role in maintaining the ritual created in order to achieve an ASC (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996). My support people aided the relaxation of my sympathetic nervous system by massaging me, applying heat and cold packs to my body, ensuring the music I had selected continued its song, topping up the oil burner, nourishing me with food and water and ensuring all my external needs were met. This afforded me the opportunity of minimal distractions, allowing me to turn my attention meditatively inwards. Akrich and Pasveer (2004) argue that a support person should act on intuitive responses at a birth and should become in effect, an extension of the birthing woman. If acute pain becomes the predominant focus of the woman’s consciousness, Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that it is the essential role of the support person to ‘bring’ the woman back to the processes she has employed to maintain an ASC.

Effective support people provide affirmation, nurturance and a sense of security to the birthing woman, allowing her to ‘go with the flow’; finding and acting on her own rhythms in accordance with her individual needs (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004). Any deviation from, or interruption to, the ritual dance created throughout childbirth would seem inconceivable. Yet I have experienced this on several occasions within the hospital environment. Medical staff have entered a quiet and dimly lit birthing room, abruptly turned up the lights and started talking in inappropriately loud and abrasive voices, thus shattering the rarefied and sacrosanct space that has been carefully constructed, and maintained by all active members of the birth journey. Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir (1996) underpin the possibility of a challenge for authority, over the course of the birth journey, that may be presented by medical staff (see also Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Maher, 2008).

A gamut of emotions and feelings such as anxiety, exhaustion, anticipation and fear, are felt during the journey of childbirth. This culminates in a sense of pride, wonder and awe, at the therapeutic use of consciousness, and the arrival of a unique spirit child into the world. The ritual of childbirth is a rite of passage that transforms the woman, to the mother (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). This voyage of discovery may uncover new ‘ways of knowing’ the world, for all members of this ritual journey (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). Winkleman (1997) confirms that during an ASC the self may be transformed and transcended. I have experienced the dissolution of ego and attachment during childbirth which has left me with the transformative gift of selflessness; a ‘way of knowing’ that I would argue is vital for the role of a mother. Gibson and Oths (2007) attest that by travelling down the path of birthing, an individual may experience a heightened sense of spirituality. Maslow (1976) argues that peak life experiences provide an individual with a focus to which they can aspire and also involves the surrender and transcendence of ‘self’. This paper has underlined some of the ways in which the journey of childbirth may meet his conceptual framework for peak experiences.

Pain during childbirth is not something to be feared but a power to be harnessed. It is a portal that allows entry and exploration into the inner depths of consciousness. A means for uncovering new dimensions of the self, that lie dormant, waiting to be aroused. I have been honoured to be included in twelve birth journeys and am waiting to be called on again. My friends and I will welcome a new consciousness into this world within the next month. The swell and currents of this child gently stir my friend’s waters, creating ripples that will crescendo into relentlessly crashing waves. We will swim again soon to a new shore and bask in the sun, as we lovingly share the insight we have gained into new ways of knowing, and meanings, that we never had before.

REFERENCES CITED

Alrich, M., & Pasveer, B. (2004). Embodiment and disembodiment in childbirth narratives. Body and society, 10(2-3), 63-84.
Gibson, E., & Oths, K. (2007). Blessed events: religion and home births in America. Medical anthropology quarterly, 21(1), 242-243.
Halldorsdottir, S., & Karlsdottir, S. (1996). Journeying through labour and delivery: Perception of women who have given birth. Midwifery, 12(1), 48-61.
Lowe, N. (1996). The pain and discomfort of labour and birth. Journal of obstetric, gynaecologic and neonatal nursing, 25(1), 82-92.
Maher, J. (2008). Progressing through labour and delivery: Birth time and women’s experiences. Women’s studies international forum, 31(2), 129-137.
Maslow, A. (1976). Religions, values and peak-experiences. Middlesex: Penguin.
Schechner, R. (2007). Living a double consciousness. In C. Bell (Ed.). Teaching ritual (pp.15-28). Retrieved September 6, 2008 from Oxford Scholarship online.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp.393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.

Terence Mckenna, Neo-Shaman

By Aaron Schafer

Terence McKenna was a student of shamanism and consequently played a shamanic role in his use of trance states to procure knowledge that he spread to others. McKenna’s dedication to shamanism is evident in his books and speeches although some of his views go beyond certain widely held themes in academic literature on the topic. McKenna’s empiricist approach to knowledge acquisition is reflected in this literature and its theoretical content challenges the very foundations of contemporary western society. He documented a number of instances in which he consumed “Psychedelic plants”, as a shamanic tool and brought back knowledge that he believed was otherworldly as opposed to literature which suggests that such knowledge is most likely culturally learned. He played the role of teacher in his theories about human evolution and the plight of western civilization which is further evidence that he was a shamanic guide in a wider social sense.

Shamanism is a spirituality that stems from the experience of altered states of consciousness instead of the deductive reasoning of religious dogma. In this sense, shamanism is in opposition to western spirituality in which beliefs precede religious experiences whereas those in trance states develop religiousness from the experiences themselves (Wooten 2007). McKenna stated that breaking down this learned religious culture and other such boundaries is an affect of the psychedelic plants that he used to achieve altered states. These boundaries are said to be undesirable qualities and it is McKenna’s belief that it is the shamans, (and notably his own) role to show people that they can be overcome in order to save the world. According to McKenna, a shaman is one who has traversed this limitless landscape and therefore who understands the way the world works (Mckenna 1993).

McKenna’s views on shamanism mirror that of academic research in some respects but in other instances he seeks to move beyond this generic structure. McKenna believes that psychoactive compounds unlock a state of being that is beyond the confines of mind/body and other such restrictive dualisms within physical reality. He experimented with LSD, Psylocibin Mushrooms, DMT and Ayauasca with the conscious intent to replicate shamanistic methods of knowledge acquisition (Mckenna 1999). His preferred method of altered state inducement was these tryptamines because of the intensity of hallucination they induced. Academic literature confirms the use of such altered states as a valid method to make contact with a spirit world and that this non-ordinary, non-dual reality contains information about the universe (Noll 1985).

McKenna differs from certain academic literature in his belief that shamans are not merely experiencing and reciting reflections of learned cultural knowledge. Instead, they are tapping into a source of wisdom that is beyond that of ordinary reality by experiencing aspects of the universe that are deeper and more profound than the understandings of humans that are limited by physically perceivable reality. This is in opposition to the idea that shamanic visionary insights are merely a repetition of wisdom that has been passed down through generations by the cultural group and is experienced emphatically in trance states that are simply a subconscious affirmation of externally learned ideas (Noll 1985). Mckenna, and the shamanic cultures he replicates, believe that they are traversing other planes of existence and although they deny that their journeys are subjective they affirm that the knowledge they bring back can be applied and communicated to their cultural group.

Luke supports McKenna’s suggestion that trance states can reveal experiences that do not have obvious cultural links for the individual. In a study of mystical experiences in trance states it was reported that a variety of visions containing seemingly random creatures and objects similar in their peculiarity to those described by McKenna were experienced. These creatures could not be attributed to any obvious cultural link for the people involved much like the machine elves reported by Mckenna. These random beings acted as guides and purveyors of knowledge and were separate from any traceable cultural source (Luke 2006).

Mckenna played the role of a teacher in the books he wrote about these experiences in which he vividly described the visions themselves. Academic literature does not frequently portray descriptively the occurrences in trance states. Most evidence is purely anecdotal as is the case with Mckenna’s descriptions which he himself readily admitted were inadmissible scientifically. He proclaimed that his field of research was beyond the ability of science to record at any length. He also developed unique theories about the plight of western civilisation including an apex of evolution which he believed would occur in the year 2012.

One of the primary roles of the shaman is to develop a relationship with people by bringing back information from this other world to share with them (Wooten 2007). McKenna did so within his theories and his warnings as to the plight of western civilisation. In a shamanic sense McKenna’s spiritual students were members of western culture that sympathised with his rejection of its methodology. Some of the issues that McKenna mentioned frequently in his teachings include; The need to move beyond an unchallenged dominant culture that has reigned supreme for thousands of years; The suppression of the ego to defeat the proliferation of the dominators and materialists within modern culture; A renewed focus on immediate experience as opposed to living in the glories of the past or desires of the future, and, the importance of the self in its ability to achieve states of consciousness that he considers to be more profound and significant than exploring the outer regions of physical space. There is also a denial that science should be the only approved method of obtaining valid knowledge (Mckenna 1992, 1993, 1999). Science may be just another culturally specific phenomenon that is superseded in the near future. Such social commentary is a common element within neo-shamanism according to a study of experienced neo-shamans (Burkett 2005). To travel to another dimension and return with an ominous warning and proposed methods of action is central to shamanic practise and widely evident in McKenna’s writings and experiences.

Mckenna’s life work was essentially to present an antithesis to the popularised reality construct associated with western society. He did so by connecting with the reality construct of shamanistic cultures that taught him practical methods for obtaining knowledge through trance states. He played the role of a pioneer by seeking methods of interpreting reality that are beyond the scope of science. Mckenna employed a method that was used in the past in a smaller cultural or tribal setting and applied it in a wider social sense. This correlates with the idea that the shamans visions are applicable to a cultural context with appropriate spirits and knowledge being relayed back to the people. Mckenna’s cultural context or tribe was contemporary western society and the knowledge he brought back and conveyed contained information that was relevant to this wider social group. This may also suggest that the kind of knowledge obtainable in forays to the spirit world is universally true, a kind of over-arching wisdom. It has been applied in unrelated nomadic cultures across the world for thousands of years and can also be applied to the complexities of a massive global society which is reflected in the comparative complexity of the knowledge put forward by Mckenna.

References
Burkett, T. (2005). “A Psychological Inquiry into Neoshamanic Practise”, Revision, vol. 27 no. 3. pp. 3-7.
Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.
Luke, D & Kittenis, M. (2006). “A Preliminary Survey of Paranormal Experiences with Psychoactive Drugs”, The Journal of Parapsychology, pp. 305-327.
Mckenna, T. (1999). “Food of the Gods”, Bantam New Age Books.
Mckenna, T. (1993). “The Invisible Landscape”, Harper Collins, New York.
Mckenna, T. (1992). “Tryptamine Hallucinogens and Consciousness”, Harper Collins, San Francisco.
Noll, R. (1985) “Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism”, Current Anthropology, vol 26. No. 4. pp. 443-461.
Wooten, R. (2007). “The Shamanic Journey: Tapping the Spiritual Wisdom Within”, Journal of Heart-Centred Therapies, vol. 10. no. 1. pp. 3-8.
Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.

The Dalai Lama as a Modern Day Shaman

The word, Shaman, tends to invoke thoughts and images of a witch doctor, priest or a spiritual leader, unfamiliar ceremonies and rituals, dancing and feathered headdresses. For a variety of reasons, Shamanism has become closely associated with Native American culture, and it is important to realise that Shamanism is a lot more universal than many people imagine. The typical Hollywood stereotype portrays Shamans as often evil, devious Native Americans, and individuals with powerful abilities allowing them to contact and manipulate the spirit world. However it is important to realise that Shamanism is not exclusive to any culture, and may be a lot closer to home than many people might think. In reality, Shamanism is comprised of a complex range of beliefs and practices, and is a part of many different cultures, spiritual practices and religions. (Mircea, 1964) Many religious and community leaders today, share a lot of qualities that may not seem obvious, but are linked to the traditional idea of Shamanism.

In the traditional sense, a Shaman is the mediator between a community and the spiritual world. A Shaman is also a healer both physically and mentally and is quite often regarded very highly as a powerful and caring leader. (Mircea, 1964) It is argued that the word itself originated from Siberian tribes and was used to refer to the traditional healers who were described as, “he or she who knows”. (Czaplicka, 1914) Whether this is a fact or not, it is true that Shamans are experts on their belief systems, culture and community, and are able to gain the trust and power which enables them to be prominent leaders of their community.

The idea of a modern day Shaman does not necessarily have to be a label exclusively applied to someone who has continued the practice of traditional Shamanism. There are many individuals who live completely different lives and practice their beliefs completely unlike Shamans of the traditional sense, however they share the same goals and general beliefs that a native Shaman may have had for their community. One such individual in today’s modern society is the Dalai Lama.

The Dalai Lama is the head of state, and the spiritual leader of Tibet. Not only does he have an enormous influence on Tibetan people, his teachings have influenced people from different cultural and spiritual backgrounds all around the world. The Dalai Lama has given people hope, peace, and understanding, just as a Shaman would be required by their community.

As leader of Tibetan spirituality, the Dalai Lama is obviously heavily involved in Tibetan Buddhism. A major practice of Tibetan Buddhism is meditation. The form of meditation most common to Tibetan Buddhism is analytic meditation and focused meditation. Analytic and focused meditation involves focusing on a thought, and in depth consideration. It is encouraged that the individual engages in an internal debate within their mind until realisation is achieved. Once realisation is achieved, it is like an answer to a solution is discovered, and this answer is focused on for an extensive period of time. (Wallace, 1999)

Similar to Shamanism, this engagement into a trance-like state allows the Dalai Lama to focus on issues that are political, spiritual and crucial to the people of Tibet and the rest of the world. For a man who describes himself as a “simple Buddhist monk”(Verhaegen, 2002) he has inspired millions of people around the world. This positive inspiration created by a single individual is a sure sign of someone who has a spiritual power, characteristic of a Shaman.

The Dalai Lama’s teachings encourage happiness, religious harmony, peace and the protection of the environment. In his speeches he gives advice, and answers many difficult questions that are posed. It is not uncommon for the Dalai Lama to engage in lengthy question and answer sessions after his public talks. (Verhaegen, 2002)It seems that millions of people find comfort in his words, and his advice. A Shaman may play an integral role in healing members of the community, and the comfort and emotional wellbeing the Dalai Lama extends upon so many people can also be seen as a form of healing. The Dalai Lama may not be physically healing people like a Shaman of the traditional sense does, but it is clear that he has a positive effect on many peoples’ minds and souls.

As a mediator for the community, the Dalai Lama has played a huge role, especially since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1949. The Dalai Lama was forced into exile in 1959, and since then, has fought a non-violent struggle for the liberation of Tibet, which resulted in him being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. It is this constant non-violent battle that gives so many people hope for peace and liberation. (Verhaegen, 2002) It is his compassion and belief for inter-religion harmony that influences so many people to be happy.

It may be difficult to understand how exactly the Dalai Lama can be perceived as a modern day Shaman, however a brief summary of the reasons should make it clear. Just like a Shaman, the Dalai Lama practices a ritual that allows him to focus on an issue to try and conceive an answer. There may not be drumming or chanting, but nevertheless, the Dalai Lama enters an altered state of consciousness to seek answers to a variety of issues. The Dalai Lama then humbly preaches what he believes, and what he has learnt through meditation. His teachings are healing, comforting and encouraging to millions of people. The Dalai Lamas goal is to restore harmony to Tibet and its people, as well as even broader issues such as promoting world peace. Similarly to a Shaman healing and comforting members of their community, followers of the Dalai Lamas teachings find comfort in his words.

It is clear that spirituality is the foundation of the Dalai Lama’s beliefs. His position in the world community as a spiritual leader and the process involved in his method of teaching and practicing can be compared to the role of a Shaman. To have such a universal influence shows that not only are his teachings powerful, but that some aspects of Shamanism – healing, guiding and to finding answers through an altered state of consciousness – are also a universal part of many religions and cultures.



References:


Mircea, E. (1964). Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy. Bollingen Series LXXVI, 3-7

Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). Types of Shaman. Shamanism in Sibera. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in Social Anthropology.

Wallace, B. A. (1999). The Buddhist Tradition of Samatha: Methods for Refining and Examining Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (2-3), 175-187.

Verhaegen, A. (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies (15), 6.

Religious Cultural Milieu

Religious Cultural Milieu
Surrounding an altered state of consciousness a number of phenomenon are purported to occur causing shifts from the conscious perception of awareness, these include: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking to mention a few (Tart, 1972). Whilst some altered states of consciousness are associated with psychological pathology those associated with world religions are for the purposes of healing, divination and communicating with spirits. The relationship between the supernatural the sacred and the religious in order to transcend the bounds of reality provides a basis from which to propel when searching for a definition of world religious practices and their associated states of altered consciousness (Stein & Stein, 2008). Within the first article Bevir (1994), in an attempt to "reconcile religious life with a modern world dominated by a scientific spirit" presents Blavatsky a prominent spiritualist. Within the second article Abram (1997) contrasts traditional sorcerers and shamans to an industrialised western world and lastly Metzner (1998) compares psychedelic substances and the utilisation of their potency for therapeutic effect within therapies from traditional shamanic practices and those of modern western society. The stark differences between altered states of consciousness embedded within a foreign cultural religious milieu for example by the dzankris of Nepal and altered states of consciousness from those same religious practices produced within a western cultural milieu is highlighted.
Bevir (1994) provides Blavatsky's argument in order to introduce the idea of occultism, which is neglected within the literature. For the purpose of validating the underlying sacred dimensions of the truth as presented by Blavatsky, reductionism within the sciences is declared. An array of secularists, theologists and theosophists provide an exploratory feel to the point at hand. Blavatsky's statement (1977 as cited in Bevir, 1994) " Occultism or magic…stands in relation to spiritualism as the infinite to the finite, as the cause to the effect, or the unitary to the multifariousness" is utilised to exhibit her approach. Creationist theories were debunked via scientific discoveries made by geologists and natural scientists within the Victorian schools, as a response occultism is thought to gap the schism. Within Blavatsky's proposed cosmology the perfected will can influence the third plane, that is the plane that links the material with the divine of all things, this is the place where magicians and occultists reside, her argument is that all laws of nature are not known. Ancient wisdom is allegedly the source of all religions and where it once resided in ancient Egypt it is now residing with the Brahmans. Buddha is thought to have picked up these ideas, which run along a similar vein. The underlying esoteric understanding is believed to be out of reach for scientists and scholars. Bevir's (1994) critic of Blavatsky's tendency to be biased and selective in her sources when building her argument is obvious. Replacement for Christianity's moral grounding by "vicarious atonement" is via responsibility for oneself, as "unity with the divine" requires a moral obligation. Obviously an altered state of consciousness within this domain is utilised for the purposes of relating to and influencing the spirit world and the cosmology within which it resides.
In the second article altered states of consciousness are described from the standpoint of a magician on a sojourn to find traditional dukuns and dzankris where perception is thought to be the medium of alteration. For the shaman an altered state of consciousness is utilised to access the spirit world for the purposes of healing, divination and the promotion of a successful hunt this benefits the community and the individuals that reside within it (Stein & Stein, 2008). Abram's experience as a slight-of-hand magician combined with his background in psychology lead him to explore this medium within a therapeutic context. Successes with highly distressed individuals began his interest in folk medicine. Abram's melodic account of his sojourn to Indonesia presents magic from an alternate perspective in contrast to his contemporary's ethnocentric western lens. His descriptive, flowing prose creates an environment within which he can expand and contrast his experiences with the sensuous landscape. His encounter with the myriad of insects begins his trip into alternate states of consciousness enhanced by the local magicians and his experiences. Whilst residing within communities in Nepal and Indonesia Abrams participation in rituals and ceremonies allows him to procure experience. The magicians place lay between the human community and that of the natural world where their influence extended to include weather patterns, landforms, forests, animals and plants. An altered state of consciousness is practiced constantly in the form of "rituals, trances, ecstasies and journeys" in order to restore and maintain equilibrium. Abrams reflection back to western industrialised society highlights our loss of contact with the natural environment as animals become biologically determined.
In the third article hallucinogenic drugs and plants are imbibed to induce altered states of consciousness in a therapeutic sense. A number of issues are presented related to the induction, maintenance and experience of altered states of consciousness. Tart (1972) has listed a number of methods that can be utilised in order to induce altered states of consciousness, firstly he presents reduction in or changes to sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, secondly is heightened sensory input from bombardment, thirdly is mental involvement, fourthly decreased alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens. Metzner (1998) discusses consciousness transformation utilising psychoactive substances. A comparison is made between western psychotherapies and shamanic rituals of healing and divination. The psycholytic properties of LSD were discovered and experiments were conducted within therapeutic guidelines with the aim to resolve conflicts and experience transcendence. Empathogens such as ecstasy appear next in the literature and induce expansion and centred awareness (Metzner, 1998). Grof (1985 as cited in Metzner, 1998) found individuals had transpersonal experiences once underlying conflicts and peri natal trauma were resolved. Metzner (1998) then leaps to Shamanic and spiritual literature in order to contrast it to therapy utilising psychoactive substances. Shamanic drumming and singing are utilised within their journeys to facilitate the individual through the experience, as is low lighting, there is the perception that the individual is in contact with another world containing spiritual beings. These spiritual beings once again, can belong to animals, plants, places, ancestors or other entities. The introduction of folk religious ceremonies introduces another use for altered consciousness that of community cohesion and protection against western consumerism. Hybrid therapeutic shamanism is briefly discussed.
In Conclusion different religious philosophies present alternate ways of entering into altered states of consciousness, for example chanting, drumming, dancing, music and hallucinogens. The purposes of entering the alternate states are varied from healing to divining and finding oneself. A common theme running throughout the articles is the attention to contact with the spirit world for the purposes of divination and healing. Miller (1995 as cited in Stein & Stein, 2008), conducted experiments with clown doctors within a New York based hospital and likened this practice to shamanic healing, for example, costumes, music, sleight-of-hand, providing social and group support whilst manipulating cultural symbolism. Metzner (1998) discusses hybrid shamanic rituals and religious folk ceremonies as western counterparts to traditional shamanic ritual healing. A number of arguments present themselves that is, whether or not western civilisation is losing touch with nature, whether or not science is contraindicated with spirituality and can western practitioners practice eastern cultural religions?


References

Abram, D. 1997. Ecology of Magic .New York: Random House. Vintage Books.
Bevir, M. 1994. West turns Eastward. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62. 3. pp747-767
Metzner, R. 1998. Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 30(4).
Stein, R. L. 2008. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic and Witchcraft. 2nd ed. United States of America: Pearson Education.
Tart, C. T. 1972. Altered States of Consciousness. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company Inc.
Baruss, I. 2003. Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Bourguignon, E. 1973. Religion, Altered States of Consciousness and Social Change. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.

reflection on healing

When I have the precious opportunity to catch up with loved ones and conversation deepens to surpass the everyday, we discuss with ‘dis-ease’ the future of ourselves and our children. There is a sense of isolation, sadness and a bewildering loss of meaning in relation to our ‘place’ in the world. My father calls it the black dog; it chews away the sunshine and attacks his soul with restrictive, invasive and oppressive qualities. Interestingly, he is an exemplar of success within the western, urban, capitalist paradigm. A self made millionaire who arose from impoverished beginnings to enjoy the material trappings and lifestyle his relentless work ethic delivered, along with a nervous breakdown. Recently retired and reflective, he finds himself left with a collection of ‘things’ he has built and accumulated and an identity crisis punctuated by loneliness and suffering. Dad has a deep longing to live by the ocean. Walking barefoot on the sand for hours, his soul is soothed, he feels like he is home. This paper suggests that Western urban society need look to the ancient art of shamanic, transcendental and ecstatic experience to heal the communal disorder found on a global level.

Western and Indigenous worldviews are oppositional in relation to both community and the natural world (Callicott, 1982). These worldviews are diverse geographically and culturally and are sanctioned accordingly (Katz, 1976). Individuals are ‘grown up’ within their communities and are born into a particular ‘way of knowing’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). Urban western society is built on a competitive, individualistic and hierarchical premise that divides and alienates individuals from each other and nature (Katz, 1976; St John, 2001). The natural world is valued in terms of economic ownership and dissected via scientific and mathematical reason (Callicott, 1982; St John, 2001). Exploitation of the earth’s resources for industrial and consumer use has rapidly depleted our natural world and current concern over sustainability of natural resources is a familiar discourse (Callicott, 1982).

In contrast, Indigenous shamanic societies do not separate the natural world from the human world (Callicott, 1982). According to animist epistemology, the natural world is sacred and invested with spiritual potency (Callicott, 1982). The health of both human and non human members is intrinsic to the collective wellbeing of the community (Callicott, 1982). All souls are active agents engaged in reciprocal and respectful relationships and shamanic ritual healing practice restores and maintains harmony between ecological members (Callicott, 1982; Driver, 1992). Ritual participation includes many individuals from the community and offers the cyclic opportunity of physical/emotional support and education, providing a sense of ‘place’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). The Indigenous shamanic tradition employs ‘techniques of ecstasy’ such as drumming, chanting, breath manipulation, singing, dancing, sensory deprivation, and so on, during shamanic ritual healing (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1997). Ecstatic tools aid individuals in achieving altered states of consciousness and allow the soul to transcend the secular into the sacred with the aim of deep listening, communication and healing for communal purposes (Winkleman, 1997).

I do not suggest misappropriation of Indigenous cultures to heal urban western society. Rather, an entry into reciprocal relationships with each other, other cultures and nature, with the aim of addressing the legacy of global genocide, left by the dominant Eurocentric worldview (Callicott, 1982). Institutionalisation of scientific ‘truth’ as the western ‘way of knowing’ does not validate experiential, intuitive and sensory responses by individuals within this social schema (Callicott, 1982; Winkleman, 1997). Western urban society is culturally conditioned to place shamanic, transcendent and ecstatic experiences with the Indigenous ‘other’; in the primitive and distant past, from which we have evolved (Callicott, 1982). However Winkleman (1987) argues, seeking states of consciousness that are out of the ordinary is an organic and biological response within all societies, on a global level. St John (2001) cites an awakening of consciousness within urban western society began in the 1960’s, in terms of reconnection with Indigenous and Pagan roots, and shamanic methods of healing. There is a plethora of keys available to unlock different levels of consciousness and enter transcendent states; workshops and festivals aimed at this awakening, abound within today’s Western society (St John, 2001). Ritual is a transformative act which in itself is adaptable and dynamic in accordance with history, location and society (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001, Winkleman, 1987). Shamanic healing is a communal process that often involves an individual calling and re-birthing process which can be a fearful and painful process (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1987). Community support and tuition is vital to ecstatic and transcendent ritual, ensuring both individual safety and social cohesion (Katz, 1976). The cyclic and interconnected nature of all beings within shamanic animist philosophy promotes the principle that healing work on the microcosm is reflected in the macrocosm and vice versa (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001). Participation in shamanic, transcendental and ecstatic experience creates a pathway for western urban individuals to redefine their spirituality and experience the profound.

It is not surprising that my loved ones are full of gnawing ‘dis-ease’ at the same time the natural world is calling out for help and nurturance. Nor is it surprising for me that the only clear thought, splicing through my father’s depression, is his call to the ocean. It is his way of connecting with the majestic and numinous that surrounds and envelopes us all. The boundaries between the secular and sacred, the profound and profane; quiver and dissolve. I am lost within the anticipation and culmination of an ecstatic state that envelopes my entire being. I climb to the summit only to discover it dwells both within and beyond me. I transcend ordinary waking consciousness and acknowledge and praise the continuum of consciousness on which I see-saw throughout my days, weeks, years and lifetimes.


References Cited

Callicott, J. (1982). Traditional American Indian and Western European attitudes toward nature: An overview. Environmental ethics, 4(1), 293-318.
Driver, T. (1992). Transformation. In The magic of ritual: our need for liberating rites that transform our lives and our communities (pp. 166-191). San Francisco: Harper.
Katz, R. (1976). Education for transcendence. In R. Lee & I. DeVore (Eds.), Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbours (pp. 281-302). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
St John, G. (2001). Heal thy self – thy planet: Confest, eco-spirituality – the self/earth nexus. Australian religion studies review, 14(1), 97-112.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp. 393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.

Altered States of Consciousness: The Continuity of an Ancient Practiceby Brent Rogers

Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are widely reported religious behaviours, and have been suggested to be something that may be universal in human societies (Winkelman, 1997). Indigenous shamans from around the world have been using entering ASCs to help and to heal individuals and their community for perhaps, thousands of years (Winkelman, 1997). ASC has been used by modern Western psychotherapists, assisting in the treatment of patients working through a range of ailments (Metzner, 1998). Commonplace in our society even today individuals enter ASC aided by meditation, hallucinogens, designer drugs, alcohol and dance music. The following paper is a review of three articles that examine some of these themes. While there are many ways in which ASC is induced, and different rituals and practices that incorporate ASC across different cultures, sub-cultures and communities it will be seen that entering ASCs may offer direct and indirect therapeutic value, physically, psychologically and spiritually, and that people inducing ASC appears to be an ongoing phenomenon.

In his article, Winkelman (1997) discusses the perhaps universal phenomenon of ASC in human religious behaviour, where the shaman enters a trance state to interact with spiritual entities for the purpose of divination, protection, healing, and to aid in community hunting activities. This state can be induced by ingesting hallucinogens, chanting and drumming in rituals and ceremony, fasting and water deprivation, music, meditation, prolonged periods of dancing or exercise, opiates, sensory deprivation, and community ritual (Winkelman, 1997). What is interesting is that ASC induces physiological changes where a state of parasympathetic dominance develops, involving a slowing of brain wave activity and an increase in hemispheric synchronisation (Winkelman, 1997). Furthermore, ASC are associated with greater activity of the right hemisphere and non-frontal parts of the brain which contrast with the ordinary waking state of awareness (OWS) dominated by the left (the rational, verbal linear modes of experience). This may help to explain why people in ASC can have “other worldly” experience, such as communicating with spiritual beings, accessing higher knowledge, or spiritual healing. With the “ordinary world” level of perception somewhat displaced (the linear, logical, normal day-today existence that we normally experience), this different level of awareness may enable a person in an ASC to perceive things they normally wouldn’t, perhaps even different levels of existence. Winkelman (1997) also points the therapeutic value of this physiological state that may actually increase physiological and physiological well being as the person enters into a “relaxation response.”

This idea of ASC facilitating in the healing process is one that Metzner (1998) also examined as he compared the relationship between hallucinogenic plants and drugs, and their role in the healing processes in both shamanism and psychotherapy. In the latter part of last century, LSD was experimented with in psychotherapy treatments across Europe to help treat a range of neurotic conditions and maladaptive behaviour. Metzner (1998) outlines commonalities noticed during these hallucinogenic-based psychotherapy sessions including an expanded state of consciousness, giving the individual insight into their behaviours and conditions. LSD was seen to amplify psychic contents, putting it under a microscope and open up previously inaccessible or unconscious processes. It was also discovered universally that LSD could, and did produce spiritual experiences, sometimes transcending ideas of time and space, a notion no doubt already understood by many traditional shamans that used similar plan-derived substances.

Metzner (1998) draws parallels between the Western psychedelic-psychotherapy and traditional shamanism. He suggests that both shamanistic rituals and psychotherapy are carefully structured, healing rituals in which a small group of people come together (though psychotherapy only involves two people). Appropriately however, Metzner (1998) does acknowledge the underlying paradigms behind treatment and illness are completely different, and that shamanistic ceremonies are quite different in that usually there is little or no talking, chanting and/or drumming are used, and are done in little or no light. Additionally, it should be mentioned that there are a are a large number of different reasons why a shamanic practitioner may enter into ASC, such as aiding the community in other ways or gaining knowledge (Winkelman, 1997). In any case, Metzner (1998) does demonstrate a Western-developed alternative in using ASC to facilitate healing.

A more ambiguous use of ASC is perhaps in Western rave culture. John (2006) considers the electronic dance music (EDM) scene as a potential religious practice, presenting arguments from a mass of literature. The rise of MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) and the emergence of rave culture in the 1990s, with youths globally getting ‘loved up’ and dancing all night at raves held in warehouses, forests and clubs to EDM are seen as a religious expression by some. Gauthier’s (2004a; cited in John, 2006) view of the rave attendance is that of ‘religious impulse’. The dance party experience can be “experimental, transcendence, transformative”, the equivalent of a conversion experience (Hutson 1999; cited in John 2006). One can be viewed at a ‘ritual’, for example, outdoor ‘doofs’ employ nature, pumping, hypnotic music, dance, body, hallucinogenic, art, “freaky costumes”, and the ceremonial social gathering of performers, very much with the intent of reaching ASC ( John, 2006). It is not difficult to see the parallels with other ecstatic ceremonies, and that ASC rituals are not confined only to small indigenous communities, but embedded within our society’s subcultures. Perhaps these are spiritual events, a “holy union” of our people? Maybe they are an innate counter-response to a Western society stripped of community and bound up in an individualistic ideology? It has been suggested that repeated exposure through dance events may actually enable participants to retain and achieve ASC naturally (John, 2006), so perhaps we are chasing a new form of consciousness? Whatever the case, considering rave culture as a religious practice of Western youth is an interesting school of thought.

The practice of entering ASC then appears to be an ongoing phenomenon, even in modern times. Various induction techniques have been explored as a means to reach ASC with a look at hallucinogens as such a vehicle. There is support that entering an ASC may have therapeutic value, with shamans using the mystical properties to heal and aid the community or an individual (Winkelman, 1997). Psychotherapy-hallucinogen treatments have revealed that ASC may help patients overcome psychological and psychosomatic disorders by unveiling normally inaccessible areas of the psyche, helping with the resolution of unconscious conflicts (Metzner, 1998). Even though helping/healing is the focus of the shaman and psychotherapist, the techniques and underlying beliefs appear very different. ASC are still used today as people all over the Western world gather at dance events, utilising drugs and music as a means to enter into the ecstatic state. Maybe they too are healing, driven by some invisible, innate urge? Maybe they are simply longing to lose themselves in an egoless, colourless, selfless space for a short time, away from an individualistic society, to experience union with their human brothers and sisters? Whatever be the case, as times change and eons pass the phenomenon and desire to enter ASC appears to remain. Let’s hope that we continue ASC not as a means to escape, but to heal, to help and to know.

References

John, G. S. (2006). Electronic dance music and culture and religion: An overview. Culture and Religion, 7(1), 1-25.
Metzner, R. (1998). Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(4), 331-341.
Winkelman, M. (Ed.). (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. Anthopology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.

Healing with Altered States of Consciousness, Western and Shamanic Approaches
By Abigale Johnson

Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are states that indigenous shamans have been accessing with journey work for thousands of years for the intent of healing and seeing, or divination (Grey 1995, Metzner 1998). Western psychology has also tried to access this form of healing, although from a completely different origin and intention, through the use of psychedelic drugs, hypnosis and other similar techniques. The worldviews, however, differ greatly, including the shamanic acknowledgement of spirit and connectedness of humans and the natural world, and the idea that illness is all of mind, body, spirit, community and environment, and that healing illness is rebalancing the patient with all of these aspects.

Although psychoactive substances are used in both western and shamanic societies for healing purposes, there are some fundamental differences in approach and intention. In western psychology, the accidental discovery of LSD provided a new study area where therapists could unlock the patient’s inner subconscious for analysis and later “resolution of inner conflict” (Metzner, 1998). But psychology’s knowledge and understanding of such drugs is limited, especially pertaining to long term effects, and the intentions and uses are quite variable throughout the history of psychedelic drug use. Shamans, however, are experts in the field of plant medicine, each with a library of thousands of plants and incredible understanding of their healing properties and effects on humans. Another key difference is the western role of the therapist, who is an observer (although experienced with the drug) of the patient, analyzing what is revealed about the psyche, and who guides the patient’s experience as a recognition of the importance of set (internal process) and setting (place, guidance). The Shaman also creates set and setting for a medicine ceremony, but with very specific and clear intentions of healing. In ceremony, the shaman works with the plant medicine and often with song to shape the journey (ASC) and works through the patient’s imbalances, reconstructing a healthy body (mental, physical and spiritual all in one). Unlike the western approach, the shaman usually journeys for the patient, and is, in the altered state, able to see the illness, how it got there and how to fix it by communication with the plant spirits, also unrecognized by western psychology. Metzner (1998) also goes on to talk about hybrid “neo-shamanic” culture, in which people with a western background are integrating therapies, bodywork and many healing and ASC techniques from different cultures, with many shamanic influences in ceremony structure and intention. This is an important direction because it makes the knowledge of thousands of years of shamanism accessible to the western world, and offers westerners a direct connection with spirit and community healing, two aspects seriously absent from modern psychology.

Rittner (2007) discusses the ayahuasca and icaro healing of the Shipibos in Peru, asking how ayahuasca, icaros and pattern healing work, and how the shamanic knowledge can be brought into western healing practices. This discusses the very precise process of an ayahuasca ceremony, but what’s important to note is the idea of illness as an imbalance of the everyday and the world of spirits, and the use of ayahuasca to travel to the world of spirits for healing. Traditionally the shaman takes the medicine, but the patient is also in an altered state, with the community and family also part of the ceremony. In this space, the shaman communicates with ayahuasca to see imbalances and blockages in the patient’s energy and uses the spirit songs or icaros to fight the sickness and lay healthy patterns, which settle on the patient, clearing up the blockages. The songs are important and both drive the journey, and have another geometric dimension, which actively heals as an energetic pattern, visible in the journey space (Rittner 2007). Rittner goes on to discuss uses of this form of healing in a western setting, where she includes the importance of social background and community, and the beauty and art of ceremony as part of the healing process. Also, the ability to surrender to the shaman’s healing, rather than western view of therapy’s “help to help ourselves,” the shaman takes responsibility for your illness and only in healing blockages and patterns you hold, is there a way for you to help yourself. She also talks about the use of sound and voice healing, and “ritual body positions and ecstatic trance healing,” indicating the importance of altered states of consciousness, even without assist of plant medicine. She seems to exclude, however, the role of spirit and the intelligence of the natural world in her application to western healing, which it seems is a large reason for the separation between western and shamanic practice in the first place.

This separation from the spirit world and idea that the natural environment is a separate, nonliving resource, are two aspects of western healing that Leslie Grey (1995) seeks to alter. With her practice of “shamanic counseling” and discussion of ecopsychology, Grey asks the question of how to bridge shamanic knowledge of nature and human connection with western psychology. She discusses the origins of psychiatry as “devolution” rather than western defined “progress” starting with shamanism, through to hypnosis and on to Freud, and her personal experience that the “primal therapies” of shamanism are more powerful healers than what’s become western psychology. The main point she makes is that through ecopsychology, seen as healing self through healing environment, western and urbanized cultures are able to reconnect with nature as a part of themselves. In practice, the journeying (ASC) techniques of shamanism would be used as a way to connect with power animals, form allies with the spirits of nature, and also to reshape problems and see them from dynamic and new angles. The use of ASC is paramount in getting us out of the “urban rut” and allows us to tap into a world of truth and connection, of health through balance with community and environment. “When someone is ill, shamanism attempts to restore power to them by putting them back in harmony with life” (Grey 1995), and by recognizing the life and connection of everything in the world around us, we have to help the earth because we feel it is a part of ourselves that is hurting. Here again is the idea that “health equals balance with all living things”, and with the integration of this concept into western thought, and drawing on ancient shamanic knowledge, there is a hope for the future of personal, community and environmental health.

References

Grey L, (1995). Shamanic Counselling and Ecopsychology. In Ecopsychology: Restoring The Earth Healing The Mind, Eds, T Rozak,
 ME Gomes and AD Kanner. Sierra Club Books,
San Franscisco.

Metzner R (1998). Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30 (4).


Rittner S (2007). Sound - Trance - Healing - The Sound and Pattern Medicine of the Shipibo in the Amazon Lowlands of Peru. Music Therapy Today, VIII (2) 196-235.