Summarys and Reflections

By Aaron Schafer

Noll, R. (1985) “Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism”, Current Anthropology, vol 26. No. 4. pp. 443-461.


Mental imagery cultivation is at the core of indigenous societies as a primary element in their religiousness that can be trained to be a powerful procurer of visions. The significance or legitimacy of mental imagery cannot be verified psychologically yet culturally specific visions are commonplace. This would suggest that despite the inability of science to fully understand mental imagery it has played a deep and meaningful role in the history of human religiousness.

It has been argued that mental imagery activates similar areas of the brain to that of actual sensory perception. Shamans are trained to enhance their ability to experience mental imagery. In this enhanced state it has been claimed that they can view objects as clearly in this internal world as they can in the external and physical. This training also leads to the ability to control imagery that includes being able to interact with beings in the spirit world and to start and stop these visions at will.

There are no written religious scriptures in shamanistic cultures; instead, religious knowledge is passed through generations verbally and experientially via these visions. The shaman “Knows and Remembers”, as the purveyor of cultural history.



Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.


The methods used by Anthropologists to study shamanistic cultures has evolved over time along with the attitude of western thought to the significance of dreams and visions. Dream significance was rejected in the 1800’s by popular western thought as an illusion as thought shifted from the importance of the spirit world to that of science and rationality. Freud famously rekindled the suggestion that dream states hold significance later on. Anthropologists also reworked their approach to shamanistic cultures moving away from being objective observers to the cultures they studied. They instead began to become part of these cultures, partaking in rituals and shedding new light on the significance of trance states experientially. If their experiences were truly reflections of their assumed culture then the data must be credible and unobtainable in any other way.

The philosophical results of this experiential method are that culturally specific groups believe whatever interests them or what they allow themselves to believe. To enter another universe of beliefs such as the shamanistic and adopt their spirit world as real is to adopt a reality separate from the western construction. The symbolism used to describe reality is different within different cognitive styles such as scientist or witch doctor and to switch styles via this experiential approach is to alter personal perception of reality.

From a psychological perspective Goulet and Noll present a similar thematic response. That is to say that typically, the psychological answer to suggestions that shamans are actually interacting with tangible entities in a spirit world is that it is a highly dubious presumption. They dismiss visionary states as phenomenology, however, they are assured that this is irrelevant. It is beyond the grasp of science to justify the “realness” of the visions.



Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.


The use of altered states of consciousness as a religious tool is a universal social phenomenon that has been demonstrated most prominently in unrelated shamanistic cultures. The legitimacy of these trance states is found culturally in the local belief that such states have religious significance, and biologically in the proven alteration of brain chemistry that can be attributed to the reported visions.

In hunter-gatherer tribes the shaman is a spiritual leader, the link between the people and the spirit world. Magico-religious practitioners from across the world display these core shamanistic characteristics but differ in their specific religious beliefs, socio-economic and political circumstances.

The biological reasoning behind these similarities shows that the various methods used to induce trance states are decreasing the frequency of brain wave patterns. This allows the shaman to enter into a state where they can have visions that they relate to their specific cultural and religious context. There are a variety of methods that shamans use to achieve trance states and some of these methods have been linked to specific spiritual results.

Winkelman and Goulet then go on to give different in depth justifications for the reasoning behind the legitimacy of these visions. Where Winkelman shows that the results of scientific tests reiterate the occurrence of vivid visions with cultural significance, Goulet takes a philosophical approach talking of reality construction. He also downplays the scientific approach by stating that anthropologists are presently researching shamanism experientially.

All three summaries are quick to point out that there is a scientific explanation for the religious benefits of these altered states. Certainly, from a biological standpoint, they show how brain waves are slowed down, how training enhances imagery cultivation, and how particular ACS inducing methods are capable of producing such states. They also agree that shamanism is a universal phenomenon that occurs in non-interacting groups which affirms the ability for altered states of consciousness to induce culturally specific trance states.

The most problematic element within these articles is that they are validating the beliefs of a group of people to a western audience by revealing concrete scientific evidence. Then, after presenting this evidence, they proceed to refute that it is even necessary to approach the issue scientifically by taking a philosophical stance. They are basically saying that they have a wealth of scientific evidence to prove their point but that one should move beyond this approach and realise that the way a group of people constructs their reality presupposes what is real to them. Outsiders should view it as just another way of representing the reality that we all exist in. It would have been much easier for the three authors to simply surpass any scientific explanations and make cultural reality construction the primary point as it is a very admirable and important message that has been hidden by a mass of crowd pleasing scientific pop culture that the authors are clearly not devoted to.

Review

Review

By Nick Barclay

41390704

The three texts chosen to study in this review are, The Role Played by Mandalas in Navajo and Tibetan Rituals by Stanley Krippner, Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in

Psychotherapy and Shamanism by Ralph Metzner, and Complementary Therapy for Addiction: “Drumming out the Drugs” by Michael Winkelman. All three texts deal with the use of shamanic practices in the process of healing and/or drug rehabilitation, whether it is through the ingestion of traditional psychoactive drugs, the use of mediation or the therapeutic use of ritualized drum circles.

Metzner’s article focuses on the difference between the way in which psychoactive drugs are used in traditional and western healing and healthcare. In the first part of the article Metzner focuses on psychedelic psychotherapy within Western culture. He states that in western culture psychoactive drugs are used to strengthen and magnify the process of self-reflection and finally understanding. He notes that while many of the same psychoactive drugs are used in traditional practices they are utilized in a completely different way because of the ‘profound differences between them in underlying worldview and assumptions about the nature of reality’ (Metzner 1998). Metzner explores how western cultures, in particular the USA, experimented with using psychoactive drugs, mainly LSD, as a mind control device. However the experiments resulted in failure because instead of making the subjects susceptible to mind-control, Psychoactives had the ‘unnerving propensity to suspend the existing mental programming and thereby release one into awesome worlds of cosmic consciousness’ (Metzner 1998). He goes on to say, like Winkelman, that these shamanic techniques can often help treat victims of substance abuse, such as alcoholism. Metzner claims that it is because of the psychoactive’s propensity to induce a simulation of the bottoming out experience, which in turn leads to insight and transformation. Metzner goes on to look at shamanic rituals of healing and divination. This section links closely with Winkleman’s article. Metzner states that shamanic rituals of healing and divination involve primarily the shaman or healer taking ‘medicine’, mostly psychoactive drugs such as mushrooms or mescaline cacti, in order to “see” the causes of illness and know what kind of remedy to apply. He describes three characteristics of this ritualized healing process, one is the lack of normal communication, there is virtually no talking. The second trait is ritualized singing or chanting, similar to Winkleman’s drumming circles. Metzner states that the fast paced singing and drumming helps the healer to move through the visions. The third trait is that most of these ceremonies are performed in low light or complete darkness, to help with the emergence of visions. Metzner goes on to briefly touch on modern forms of the shamanic process, such as certain churches and rave parties in which participants take psychoactive drugs and use the music to engage in a trance state.

Winkleman explores the effect of drumming circles on victims of drug abuse. He explores different peoples use of these drumming circles, which seem remarkably similar to each other and to traditional shamanic drumming rituals. Most of Winkleman’s examples follow a basic structure, which is a warm-up exercise to familiarize participants with each other and the drum. After the warm-up the group engages in a from of meditation involving rhythmic striking of the drums and a repetitive vocal chant, much like the practices taking place inside the mandalas of Krippner’s article. The rhythmic singing helps the participants to start the “letting go” process through visualization. The next part is spontaneous playing, which heightens non-verbal communication, something that Winkleman believes integral to begin the process of rehabilitation. After this the next step is a call and response exercise, which connects the group together, which helps with the healing process by adding the energy of many. The most important part of the process however is the meditation that follows the drumming circle. The meditation is conducted with the aid of appropriate music and percussion instruments, designed to relax the participants and aid in the visualization process to ultimately connect them with a higher power. Winkleman states that the both the drumming and meditation are necessary to the process of healing and rehabilitation. The drumming helps to pull the group together into a cohesive collection that helps promote community and connectedness, integral to rehab. It also induces an altered state of consciousness coupled with a rush of energy, created by the repetitive nature of the drumming and chanting, much like the state achieved through the mandala meditation in Krippner’s article. The meditation part of the process promotes deep relaxation and leads to strong emotional release, which is necessary to the rehabilitation process.

The last article reviewed is Krippner’s article on Navajo and Tibetan rituals and the role mandalas play in these ceremonies. Krippner starts by explaining what these rituals are used for. They are used for healing ‘disease’, which is categorized as ‘a malfunctioning of biological and/or psychological processes’ (Krippner 1997). The other thing they heal is ‘illness’, which is defined by Krippner as ‘the psychosocial experience and meaning of the perceived disease’ (1997). He states that these processes heal rather than cure, healing being defined as ‘attaining wholeness or harmony with the community, the cosmos, and one's body, mind, emotions, and/or spirit’ and curing being the act of ‘removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a client to [full] health. Krippner then focuses on two differing mandala meditation ceremonies, that of the Navajo and Tibetan. Both ceremonies involve the construction of a mandala which in the simple Navajo form consist of a circle with a cross in the middle creating the four points of the compass. The Tibetan form is more complex with and eight point lotus design that includes two added points that originate from the practicing healer who is inside the mandala. After entering the mandala the healer begins the meditations and ritualised chanting, which enables those gathered to enter an altered state of consciousness, resulting in the gain of spiritual power. This power is then used in the healing process to re-establish a spiritual status quo by re-ordering both the macrocosm of the universe and subsequently the microcosm reflected in all, be it personal or communal. Krippner acknowledges that while the presentation of these events change depending on cultural context the practices, underlying principles and benefits remain the same. Krippner concludes that in both societies the mandala symbolizes balance and harmony and is an integral part of human society and spiritual development.

Shamans, Yogis and City-Dwelling Sorcerers. By Kyle Geaney.

The three articles by Bevir, Bowie and Abram discussed respectively, raise issues based on the contrast between two opposing worldviews, characterised as Eastern versus Western and in light of differing attitudes toward shamanic wisdom and technique. Also discussed are problems associated with cultural appropriation as highlighted by new-age shamanism and also identifiable in differing definitions of shamanism and approaches to the study of it.

In West Turns East, Bevir depicts the spiritual journey of Madame Blavatsky in her quest to reconcile key differences between Western and Eastern views of ultimate reality through the link between Western Occultism and ancient Hindu wisdom. The post enlightenment era and the consequent crisis of Christianity led many to new-age spiritualism of which Blavatsky recognised as a revival of ancient wisdom originated within the Hindu tradition. According to this wisdom the universe is one and began with a ‘single all-embracing deity who was mind and infused each particle of matter with a divine spark’(Bevir, 758) . The universe evolved by a series of emanations, with the earth represented by the ‘Sacred tree’, (closely resemblant of the shamanic (and Quabalistic) ‘tree of life’ or axis mundis) which is upturned so that the roots extend to the heavens, as the source of all things material and spiritual, thus the Hermetic axiom ‘as on heaven so on earth’(Bevir, 754) . Since all matter was divine, man, through the knowledge of the astral properties of natural things, could use one thing to influence another and practise ecstatic flight or astral projection through the ‘separation of a type of fluidic ‘spiritual’ counterpart of the human body in order to explore other dimensions of existence’ (Drury, 19). The manipulation of astral fluids also formed the basis of occult healing and it was the yogis ‘secret of secrets, that the soul was not knit to the flesh’(Bevir, 762) . This is the same ‘out of body’ phenomenon practised by shamans the world over but it is one ‘that does not easily square with our own logical conceptions’ (Drury, 19) . Blavatsky however, saw occult magic as a science and attempted reconcile ancient eastern wisdom with the ‘enlightened’ West through the common link of western occult mysticism and magic.

In her book Anthropology of Religion, Bowie outlines different definitions of shamanism as well as different approaches to the study of it from a western perspective. Harner refers to shamanism as not a religion, but as a set technique within an animistic belief system, where altered states of consciousness are accessed in order to ‘communicate with and appease the spirits for the purposes of healing, fertility, protection and aggression’(Bowie, 191). Eliade sees shamanism more broadly as a technique of ecstasy, inducing an ‘ascent to the sky or descent into the underworld, incarnating spirits and being possessed’ this ecstatic flight attempted to recover a primordial state before the fall (Bowie, 192) or in Hindu cosmology, before the emanation from the higher spiritual plane to the lower gross material plane (Bevir, 749). Halifax offers another description, referring to shamanism as a ‘specific ideology that has persisted through millennia and is found in many different cultural settings’ (Bowie,193). These are broad definitions and Abram points out that often ‘anthropologists overlook the ecological dimensions of the shamans craft’(Abram, 180). However these definitions do allow for neo-shamanism to be practised in all cultures, including urbanised Western settings where one can go on a soul journey or discover an animal spirit helper by means of a stereo, headphones and drumming tape. According to Harner this practise is not ‘playing Indian, but going to the same revelatory spiritual sources that tribal shamans have travelled to from time immemorial’(Bowie,197). In fact there is an increasing tendency in western societies for people to access ASC for healing and divinatory purposes and the emergence of new-age spiritualism and western shamanic healers (Abram,179) , as is also evident in the popularity of the writings of Castenada (Bowie, 200).

According to Abram however, this is to misunderstand the shaman whose role as a healer is secondary and dependent upon the primary role as a ‘boundary keeper’(Abram, 177). In Ecology of magic, Abram depicts his journey to Indonesia where, being a sleight of hand magician, he hoped to research medical uses of magic though the acquaintance of local shamans or medicine people. Abram developed his own philosophy of magic by learning about the practises of the dukuns (shamans), whose role was to maintain a balance between the human and the non-human community and the health and wellbeing of both (Abram, 179). This is closer to Lewis’ definition of a shaman than others presented by Bowie (Bowie,200) . As with the Magi, the dukun ensures a two-way flow and a harmonious balance between the human and non-human community (however more focused on the earth than toward the heavens as with the magi), by giving back to the ‘spirited natural world through offerings of prayer, propitiations and praise’ (Abram, 178). Abram discovers that the ‘spirit’ world was simply the ‘natural’ world for the indigenous community. He writes of a local ant population being ‘kept at bay’ by daily offerings of bread and thus maintaining a harmonious relationship; the human community synergistically embedded within the rest of nature where even the ‘mountains have thoughts’(Abram,197). This absence of anthropocentric domination had a profound effect on Abram who sat enthralled watching spiders weave their own magic. It is with dismay that Abram tells of his return home to a society whose ‘relation to the biosphere can in no way be said to be a balanced or reciprocal one’ (Abram, 200) so that in new-age shamanism, the primary role cannot be carried out. It is necessarily limited by a lack of connectedness and exposure to ‘wild nature…symptoms are only traded for others’(Abram, 200) so that psychic healing is ultimately ineffective.

Perhaps the true nature of shamanism isn’t captured by the Western conception of it. Certainly western shamanic practitioners may not possess the astral wisdom of a Magi or Yogi, but it also highlights the fact that, regardless of wisdom or techniques, ASC and spiritual phenomena is universal. After all, Yogis and Occultists are not strictly shamans yet are perhaps analogous with the concept in many senses. Castenada’s teacher, Don Juan, taught that it was ‘inner space’ that was crucial (this is consistent with Quabbalah’s ten levels of consciousness and that one could practise sorcery in a modern city, given the right mental and physical conditions; whereas Abram insists on the need to propel one’s self ‘laterally into the depths of the landscape’ rather than inwards toward the personal psyche.




REFERENCE

Abram D, 1997, ‘Ecology of Magic’, Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-human World, New York, Vintage Books, 1997, ch.1.

Bevir M, 1994, ‘West Turns Eastward’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62, 3, 747-767.

Bowie F, 2000, ‘Shamanism’, The Anthropology of Religion, Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing, ch.7.

Drury N, 1978, Don Juan, Mescalito and Modern Magic: The Mythology of Inner Space, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.


David Abram interviewed by Scott London, http://www.scottlondon.com/interviews/abram/html

Reflection: The Importance of Shamanic, Ecstatic and Transcendent experiences in today's western urban society

By Renee Levick

As I reflect on what our modern western society has become I realize that it’s founded on an arrogance of materialistic, consuming capitalism that has long lost its connection to nature, mother earth or the spiritual realm. Western society has built and constructed itself and thus maintained dominance with an attitude of control, superiority and manipulation over the environment. Modern society is built around the physical thus we have long neglected and dismissed what we can not see. We have built society around the Ordinary Waking State (OWS) (Winkelmen, 1997).

Within recent times due to globalization a plethora of alternative world view points, religions and spiritualities through the New Age Movement have become prominent within the public realm in everyday urban society (Geer, 1995). Along with these beliefs the importance of shamanic, transcendent and ecstatic practices has been reintroduces into our society. The practice of the transcendent experience (thus ecstasy) is present within all societies. However within modern western society it could be said in a sweeping generalization people are enculturalated to be in control of themselves or to maintain an OWS, thus frightened of the unknown experience of the transcendent state. A transcendent state may be induced through a variety of means; the most obvious being hallucinogenic drugs and meditation however exposures to extreme temperature, extensive exercise, sleep depravation, auditory stimuli and social and sensory depravation all induce a transcendent state (Coxhead, 1985, Winkelmen, 1997).

It is within this New Age movement the importance of the trance and ecstatic state are beginning to be appreciated for its therapeutic, calming and healing properties. However it is important to note that the foundation of the trance and ecstatic states are practiced as apart of everyday living within our modern society (Geer, 1995). On reflection of my experiences I have realized that I do not personally set out to induce myself into a trance state it occurs due to an escalation of ecstasy. I often experience a trance state when I am creating art. After extensive research and planning towards my creation I make all necessary apparatus available to me so I may create from start to finish. It is within this time of creation that I will loose track of time as I am unaware of my surroundings as I am consumed in the colourful artistic creation, I am detached from myself. A sense of rejuvenation, happiness and of re-grounding occurs after such a creation, I feel like I am true self once more. Meanwhile I often fall into a trance when I am truly introduced and submerged in a natural place of beauty such as that of a rainforest or a secluded slice of sea and sky. Time slips by while I rejuvenate the soul reconnecting to nature once more.

As people are starting to realize in this postmodern urban society the grounding and healing nature of the transcended state it is becoming more culturally accepted. Thus the natural progression of this acceptance is for the role of the Shaman and the healing nature of Shamanic practices to gain additional recognition within western society. Shamanism main concept is that of harmony between nature and the spirits is maintained within the universe. A Shaman’s main role within a community traditionally is to practice divination and to heal its people often via inducing themselves into a trance state. It is during the trance the shaman gains access to the spirit realm to take a journey. On the journey they ask the spirits or learn why the individual has such an illness and how they can appease the spirits of the earth to heal the individual (Winkelmen, 1997).

Within this globalizing world there are very few traditionally indigenous Shaman’s left. I personally feel that a Shaman is not limited to a particular style of dress or location, shamanism is a way of thinking in which defies modern constructed boundaries and limitations. The urban Shaman has to deal with far more complex situations than that of the traditional as they are dealing with a variety of cultures, beliefs and socio-economic groups however they are reapplying the same wisdom of that of their predecessors.

Within our society our Doctors are placed of high prestige as they are care takers for those who are physically ill. However once more due to the nature of our lifestyles little or no importance is placed on that of healing the spirit. Within the modern constructs it is hard to comprehend that one may be physically ill due to spiritual factors and not physical, as an illness is “the bodies’ response to the way we choose to live life” (Fienup-Riordan A, 1994, pg 189). Currently there are a small number of alternative practices that are opening offering such healing services. In time as people become aware of the importance of caring for the spirit/ soul and re-grounding one self and respecting nature with a humble attitude will the universe be at peace. Meanwhile while we are waiting for the sudden awakening of the consciousness of the modern world many small shamanic cultures are slowly dying.

References:
• Coxhead N, 1985, ‘The Relevance of Bliss: A Contemporary Exploration of Mystical Experience’, Houndslow, Middlesex, Wildwood House. RL
• Fienup-Riordan A, 1994, ‘Boundaries and passages: Rule and Ritual in Eskimo oral tradition’, Norman, Unviersity of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma.
• Greer P, 1995, ‘The Aquarian Conclusion, Conflicting Theologies of the New Age’, in Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol 10, No 2.
• Winkelman M, 1997, ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behavior’, in Glazier S, Ed. Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 393 - 428.

The importance of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences in today's western urban society.

"A reflection"
By: Lin Chen

People would often meet others that are from a certain religion but practice techniques of other religions. What era is this we call that incorporates the “goods” (whether beliefs or techniques) of different religions like a pick-and-mix candy bag? Many claim to do this for spiritual satisfaction. But how many actually do understand the underlying dogmatics of the “other” practices they choose to practice; be it chanting, meditation or even shamanic techniques like drumming.

In this paper, we will look at the emergence of the romanticized view of eastern religion in the west during the twentieth century and how it evolved to the twenty-first century view of eastern religions when many academics get to work closely with these traditional cultures. And finally a psychologist turned “ecopsychologist” that incorporates shamanic techniques into her therapy sessions as well as practice and studied shamanism claiming it to be a synergy when used together with psychology. We will also look at the importance of these shamanic techniques in this western urban society.

With the emergence of pick-and-mix candy bag style choices, shouldn’t the underlying beliefs of these “forgotten” practices be kept alive instead of slowly losing its buoyancy? Many people refer it to the emergence of the “new age” or “new age religions”. There is also an increasing amount of people that claim to be spiritual however non-religious.

Like many of the eastern religions, the state of the spiritual self depended on one’s diet. Vegetarianism is believed to be both “a source and a symbol of spirituality”, thus the increase of vegetarians and vegans in today’s modern society. (Bevir, 1994) Have people become more spiritually aware with or without realizing it?

According to Bevir (1994), a growing number of westerners throughout the twentieth century turned to India for spiritual fulfilment. However, the view back then was overly romanticized. The Indians were portrayed in a much noble view. They were seen as people that could give up their material life and focus only on the spiritual/ religious side of themselves and the world. They saw people that turned inward instead of outward to an external source. They saw all these as mystical, and choosing to belief that eastern religion is esoteric and could only be understood by those who are spiritually adept, the underlying dogmatics was ignored. These romanticized view of eastern religion might be more appealing to westerners as they appear to be mystical; within you grasps but not at the same time.

However, having said this, I believe that at the moment, in the twenty-first century, as more and more people have taken into practicing alternate techniques and also choosing to study and understand the dogmatics underlying it. Many academics, psychologist and anthropologists have been changed by “cross-cultural” experiences. (Goulet&Young, 1994).


Shamanism’s worldview of health is that of a balance between all living things. The idea of all things being connected is an ancient concept, however, now also recognized as a concept for the future. As ecologist Leslie Gray (1995) mentioned in her interview, ecopsychology has its roots in Shamanism. Ecopsychology is a new field of psychology that recognizes that one can only be sane if he/she has sane relationships with their environment.

Shamanism approximately dates back at least four thousand years ago. These practices are still used now amongst indigenous people all over the world. Gray (1995) uses shamanic techniques in her therapy sessions and refers to these sessions as “Shamanic counseling”. Shamanic counseling motivates individuals to explode their environment. Instead of plain-old talking therapy. It attempts to make change to human behaviour through techniques called “personal empowerment”. This assists patients to restore their personal power as they understand their life with the help of shamanic techniques.

This earth has more then forty thousand years of shamanic knowledge on how to live healthily together with the earth. According to Gray(1995), there are many “models of sustainable indigenous societies” and none at all for “sustainable industrial societies. It would be a tragic pity if people were to generate more models for “sustainable societies” and do not learn the way of life lead by more than 300 million indigenous people still living in the world. Surely, mother earth has given more than enough signs with the increasing number of natural disasters that something must be done to restore the balance.

And as we can see, these shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences play an important role in today’s western urban society. Think about it. When was the last time you got completely lost in your favourite music, and seem to be just submerged in somewhere completely different within yourself, and when you finally realize and come back to your fully conscious state having found a sense of inner peace.



Reference

Bevir M, 1994, ‘West turns Eastward’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62, 3, 747-767.

Gray L, 1995, Shamanic Counselling and Ecopsychology, in Ecopsychologt: Restoring The Earth Healing The Mind, T Rozak, ME Gomes, and AD Kanner, Eds, San Franscisco Sierra Club Books, http://www.woodfish.org/ecorestore.html

Goulet J-G. & DE Young, 1994, ‘Theoretical and Methodological Issues’, in DE Young & J-G.

Fundamental Shamanic Ideologies in Western Society.

- Ben Muller

In today’s western urban society, the practice of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent rituals may seem trivial to many people. It is important to be aware that not only are these practices being adapted and increasingly practiced in Western culture, but that many of the techniques are universal and a foundation for some manifestations of religious and spiritual behaviour. (Winkelman, 1997) There are many activities we as humans actively play a part in which may seem irrelevant to the topic, but on closer inspection share the core purpose of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent rituals that are unheard of in Western society. The underlying purpose of these rituals is to enter an altered state of consciousness, to incite visionary ecstasy, to heal and to find answers. (Eliade, 1964) I will reflect on my own experiences to clarify the importance of these practices in western society and to draw attention to the similarities between activities we do every day and shamanic practices.

Subconsciously wishing, asking and thanking, whether in the form of religious prayer or not, comes from the natural human disposition of assigning expression to thought and emotions. (Franco, 1998) Whether you are wishing someone better health, hoping for rain or sunshine, mourning the dead, or simply being thankful for your existence, you are engaging in something everyone has experienced. This experience is to simply focus on thoughts for the benefit of your wellbeing. This is something that forms the basis of shamanic practices. The difference between this universal human disposition and the various shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent rituals, is the methods used to achieve this focus, and the intensity of the experience of thought and emotion. By focusing on these thoughts, - and sometimes with the aid of music or other tools - the shaman can go beyond simply focusing on a thought. Once a shaman achieves this heightened state of focus, they are in a trance or an altered state of consciousness. It is in this state of consciousness where the shaman can incite visionary ecstasy, heal and find answers.

Personally, I have always had an interest in the mind and the extreme variations between the different states it can be in. I have found that activities such as meditation and listening to music are deeply relaxing and can aid in putting oneself into an altered state of consciousness. There are other activities such as, exercise, fasting, dance, and any other activity that requires focus that could be used as tools to enter an altered state of consciousness. (Townsend, 1997) However, for the benefit of describing my own experiences I will focus on music and meditation.

I have found that the most effective way for myself to enter an altered state is to concentrate on a thought or sound long enough to keep my mind alert while my body relaxes. Similarly, a shaman may sit in a position long enough for their body to fall asleep, while they keep their mind alert by focusing on music such as a repeated drum beat. (Eliade, 1964) Sustaining a high level of focus for a prolonged period of time is very difficult. I have found that it is essential to keep the mind from wandering when attempting to enter an altered state and therefore it has required a lot of practice and patience. Once I have concentrated on a single thought for a long enough period of time, I feel a sense of weightlessness as I can no longer feel my body at all. Physical senses such as touch, smell and taste no longer seem to exist. It is at this point that I find I no longer have to concentrate on focusing on a thought or sound and I can let my mind wander and think about different things. It becomes very easy to think, as I can dedicate a very high amount of concentration and focus to a single thought, without becoming mentally exhausted as I would in an ordinary waking state. This leads me to believe I am experiencing something similar to what a shaman might be when they are searching for answers. I don’t believe that I can communicate with the spirit world like a shaman does, (Eliade, 1964) but through the aid of focus and music I have achieved an altered state of consciousness where thinking becomes a lot clearer and productive.

When I focus on the music instead of a thought, a strange thing happens as I can see and feel the music. It is very difficult to describe such a transformation of the senses, but to the best of my efforts it would be to describe sounds as bouncing colours of different intensity and texture dependant on the pitch and instrument, accompanied by a feeling of awe and euphoria. An experience like this is very peaceful and engaging. It becomes almost impossible to worry or feel anxious and I always come out of it feeling uplifted and energetic. Once again I have used techniques used by shamans to enter an altered state, (Noll, 1995) and by doing so I have experienced something in my mind that has alleviated my mood and overall wellbeing.

There are many people like myself that have their own unique ways of achieving relaxation and focus. (Tart, 149) Everybody, - deliberately or not – regularly assigns expression to thought and emotions. This is the underlying aspect of most shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent rituals. (Winkelman, 1997) The idea that at least some aspects of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are experienced by everyone, suggests that these experiences are not only important in today’s western urban society, but simply a universal aspect of humanity. We may not be all practicing it in the traditional way, but everyone subconsciously focuses on thoughts for their own wellbeing and some of us embrace it further to discover that our mind can provide answers, healing and invoke an overall sense of awe.


References:

Winkelman M. (1997), ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour’, in Glazier S, Ed. Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, pp. 393 - 428.

Mircea Eliade. (1964) Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy. Bollingen Series LXXVI. Pantheon Books, NYNY, pp .3-7.

Franco, O.D., Filho (1998). Religious Experience and Psychoanalysis: From Man-as-God to Man-with-God International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 79: pp. 113-131.

Townsend J, (1997) ‘Shamanism’, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook. Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469.

Noll R, (1995). Mental Imagery Cultivation. Current Anthropology, 26, 4: pp. 443-461.

Tart, C. (1990) "Adapting Eastern spiritual teachings to Western culture". The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22: pp. 149–166

Paul - The importance of ASC in the west.

Trance as a integral part of human nature and society.

-Paul Miller

Today’s western society is littered with the markings of eastern and alternative spiritualities. There is no shortage of directions one can take when looking to further individual spiritual development; there is something to suit all tastes. Many people are able to invest themselves deeply within alternate spiritualities. For perhaps the greater proportion however, this smorgasbord of religion allows individuals to pick and choose aspects of many. This process can ultimately prove to be detrimental, leading to a lack of understanding and respect for the deeper aspects of each tradition. While practices like yoga or meditation are popular, little thought is given to the process behind such activities. When one stops to consider these methods it becomes obvious that trance techniques can play a very important part in modern society. This essay will examine the fundamental role that trance plays in western urbanised society. In particular it will look at various trance experiences and the importance of shamanic practice as a process of healing.

It is a common misconception that entrance into altered states of consciousness is a rare and mystical occurrence. When dealing with a potentially ambiguous term such as trance it is important to form a clear definition. For the purposes of this essay trance will be defined as, a complete focus upon the singular, be that object, self or thought, to the extent that one becomes mentally detached from the physical (Weir, 2007). With this definition in mind it becomes easy to see the presence of ASC in everyday life. Any process which disassociates an individual from the sensory overload of physical reality could be said to be trance inducing. This is not limited purely to techniques such as meditation or drumming but encompasses everything from reading to sport. Through this it is possible to gain some insight into the prevalent nature of trance in our society. Trance is not something limited to practitioners of alternate spirituality but is an intrinsic part of culture and human nature.

This intrinsic nature of trance provides some answer as to why it is an important part of modern society. It suggests that ASC in the west are not merely artefacts of the east, but rather a part of human nature. Trance serves many important functions biologically, emotionally and mentally (Weir, 2007). As previously mentioned it functions as a state of respite from endless torrents of thought and sensory input. Indeed some trance like states, such as daydreaming, seem to be by-products of the brains inability to process everything at once. Additionally and perhaps more importantly is the manner in which trance states can influence bodily healing, mental self-exploration and the consolidation or development of knowledge (Dobkin de Rios, 2002).

Explicit trance practice provides, for individuals in urbanised society, an increased sense of community and connection. While at the same time it fulfils the egocentric requirements of our highly individualist society, providing individual identity and spirituality. From my personal experience in meditation, which lacks any traditional technique or grounding, trance is a fundamental part of life. Meditation allows for personal growth and self-understanding along with providing an increased connection to the people I meditate with. Additionally implicit practice, such as raving or simply listening to music leaves me feeling energised and focused.

Another important aspect related to ASC is the practice of Shamanic healing. It addresses some of the shortcomings of modern medicine by focusing on more than just the physical self. It seeks to heal and unify the mind, body, soul and community (McClenon, 1997). Healers, as the name suggests, perform techniques that restore order out of chaos with the hope of curing problems that plague their patients. This means that they are the keepers of great amounts of knowledge. In many older, indigenous cultures this knowledge can be very much based on tradition, such as the !Kung process of !Kia-Healing (Katz, 1982). One of the marks of modern society however is the ambiguity of tradition, where the greater community can easily swallow up smaller practices and knowledge. Where shamanic healing differs lays in a shaman’s ability to adapt and change to suit the needs of his or her community. Adaptation means that a shaman’s knowledge is not stagnant but instead always progressing forward. Shamanism is frequently referred to as the origin of religion (Dobkin de Rios, 2002 & McClenon, 1997). This is reflected in the shaman’s lack of limitations, as they take the role of doctor, psychologist, priest and community counsellor. Thus Shamanic practice in modern society, even as an abstract notion is fundamentally important as it allows for healing and help within realms other than the physical.

When these aspects of trance are joined it becomes evident just how important ASC are for western urban society. The examples of shamanic healing and trance states have been used to demonstrate the integral part that altered states of consciousness play in our culture. As such it is comforting to know that reaching these transcendent states is an ability that comes naturally to all humans; regardless of the other aspects that make us each unique.

Reference:

Dobkin de Rios, M. (2002) What We Can Learn From Shamanic Healing: Brief Psychotherapy With Latino Immigrant Clients. American Journal of Public Health, 92(10), pp. 1576–1581.

Katz, R. (1982) Accepting "Boiling Energy": The Experience of !Kia-Healing among the !Kung. Ethos, 10(4), pp. 344-368.

McClenon, J. (1997) Shamanic Healing, Human Evolution, and the Origin of Religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36 (3), pp. 345-354.

Weir, D. (2007) A Gentle Introduction to Trance Theory |The Trance Institute. Available from: http://www.trance.edu/drupal/node/26 (Accessed 18/8/08).