Review

Review

By Nick Barclay

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The three texts chosen to study in this review are, The Role Played by Mandalas in Navajo and Tibetan Rituals by Stanley Krippner, Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in

Psychotherapy and Shamanism by Ralph Metzner, and Complementary Therapy for Addiction: “Drumming out the Drugs” by Michael Winkelman. All three texts deal with the use of shamanic practices in the process of healing and/or drug rehabilitation, whether it is through the ingestion of traditional psychoactive drugs, the use of mediation or the therapeutic use of ritualized drum circles.

Metzner’s article focuses on the difference between the way in which psychoactive drugs are used in traditional and western healing and healthcare. In the first part of the article Metzner focuses on psychedelic psychotherapy within Western culture. He states that in western culture psychoactive drugs are used to strengthen and magnify the process of self-reflection and finally understanding. He notes that while many of the same psychoactive drugs are used in traditional practices they are utilized in a completely different way because of the ‘profound differences between them in underlying worldview and assumptions about the nature of reality’ (Metzner 1998). Metzner explores how western cultures, in particular the USA, experimented with using psychoactive drugs, mainly LSD, as a mind control device. However the experiments resulted in failure because instead of making the subjects susceptible to mind-control, Psychoactives had the ‘unnerving propensity to suspend the existing mental programming and thereby release one into awesome worlds of cosmic consciousness’ (Metzner 1998). He goes on to say, like Winkelman, that these shamanic techniques can often help treat victims of substance abuse, such as alcoholism. Metzner claims that it is because of the psychoactive’s propensity to induce a simulation of the bottoming out experience, which in turn leads to insight and transformation. Metzner goes on to look at shamanic rituals of healing and divination. This section links closely with Winkleman’s article. Metzner states that shamanic rituals of healing and divination involve primarily the shaman or healer taking ‘medicine’, mostly psychoactive drugs such as mushrooms or mescaline cacti, in order to “see” the causes of illness and know what kind of remedy to apply. He describes three characteristics of this ritualized healing process, one is the lack of normal communication, there is virtually no talking. The second trait is ritualized singing or chanting, similar to Winkleman’s drumming circles. Metzner states that the fast paced singing and drumming helps the healer to move through the visions. The third trait is that most of these ceremonies are performed in low light or complete darkness, to help with the emergence of visions. Metzner goes on to briefly touch on modern forms of the shamanic process, such as certain churches and rave parties in which participants take psychoactive drugs and use the music to engage in a trance state.

Winkleman explores the effect of drumming circles on victims of drug abuse. He explores different peoples use of these drumming circles, which seem remarkably similar to each other and to traditional shamanic drumming rituals. Most of Winkleman’s examples follow a basic structure, which is a warm-up exercise to familiarize participants with each other and the drum. After the warm-up the group engages in a from of meditation involving rhythmic striking of the drums and a repetitive vocal chant, much like the practices taking place inside the mandalas of Krippner’s article. The rhythmic singing helps the participants to start the “letting go” process through visualization. The next part is spontaneous playing, which heightens non-verbal communication, something that Winkleman believes integral to begin the process of rehabilitation. After this the next step is a call and response exercise, which connects the group together, which helps with the healing process by adding the energy of many. The most important part of the process however is the meditation that follows the drumming circle. The meditation is conducted with the aid of appropriate music and percussion instruments, designed to relax the participants and aid in the visualization process to ultimately connect them with a higher power. Winkleman states that the both the drumming and meditation are necessary to the process of healing and rehabilitation. The drumming helps to pull the group together into a cohesive collection that helps promote community and connectedness, integral to rehab. It also induces an altered state of consciousness coupled with a rush of energy, created by the repetitive nature of the drumming and chanting, much like the state achieved through the mandala meditation in Krippner’s article. The meditation part of the process promotes deep relaxation and leads to strong emotional release, which is necessary to the rehabilitation process.

The last article reviewed is Krippner’s article on Navajo and Tibetan rituals and the role mandalas play in these ceremonies. Krippner starts by explaining what these rituals are used for. They are used for healing ‘disease’, which is categorized as ‘a malfunctioning of biological and/or psychological processes’ (Krippner 1997). The other thing they heal is ‘illness’, which is defined by Krippner as ‘the psychosocial experience and meaning of the perceived disease’ (1997). He states that these processes heal rather than cure, healing being defined as ‘attaining wholeness or harmony with the community, the cosmos, and one's body, mind, emotions, and/or spirit’ and curing being the act of ‘removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a client to [full] health. Krippner then focuses on two differing mandala meditation ceremonies, that of the Navajo and Tibetan. Both ceremonies involve the construction of a mandala which in the simple Navajo form consist of a circle with a cross in the middle creating the four points of the compass. The Tibetan form is more complex with and eight point lotus design that includes two added points that originate from the practicing healer who is inside the mandala. After entering the mandala the healer begins the meditations and ritualised chanting, which enables those gathered to enter an altered state of consciousness, resulting in the gain of spiritual power. This power is then used in the healing process to re-establish a spiritual status quo by re-ordering both the macrocosm of the universe and subsequently the microcosm reflected in all, be it personal or communal. Krippner acknowledges that while the presentation of these events change depending on cultural context the practices, underlying principles and benefits remain the same. Krippner concludes that in both societies the mandala symbolizes balance and harmony and is an integral part of human society and spiritual development.