The word, Shaman, tends to invoke thoughts and images of a witch doctor, priest or a spiritual leader, unfamiliar ceremonies and rituals, dancing and feathered headdresses. For a variety of reasons, Shamanism has become closely associated with Native American culture, and it is important to realise that Shamanism is a lot more universal than many people imagine. The typical Hollywood stereotype portrays Shamans as often evil, devious Native Americans, and individuals with powerful abilities allowing them to contact and manipulate the spirit world. However it is important to realise that Shamanism is not exclusive to any culture, and may be a lot closer to home than many people might think. In reality, Shamanism is comprised of a complex range of beliefs and practices, and is a part of many different cultures, spiritual practices and religions. (Mircea, 1964) Many religious and community leaders today, share a lot of qualities that may not seem obvious, but are linked to the traditional idea of Shamanism.
In the traditional sense, a Shaman is the mediator between a community and the spiritual world. A Shaman is also a healer both physically and mentally and is quite often regarded very highly as a powerful and caring leader. (Mircea, 1964) It is argued that the word itself originated from Siberian tribes and was used to refer to the traditional healers who were described as, “he or she who knows”. (Czaplicka, 1914) Whether this is a fact or not, it is true that Shamans are experts on their belief systems, culture and community, and are able to gain the trust and power which enables them to be prominent leaders of their community.
The idea of a modern day Shaman does not necessarily have to be a label exclusively applied to someone who has continued the practice of traditional Shamanism. There are many individuals who live completely different lives and practice their beliefs completely unlike Shamans of the traditional sense, however they share the same goals and general beliefs that a native Shaman may have had for their community. One such individual in today’s modern society is the Dalai Lama.
The Dalai Lama is the head of state, and the spiritual leader of Tibet. Not only does he have an enormous influence on Tibetan people, his teachings have influenced people from different cultural and spiritual backgrounds all around the world. The Dalai Lama has given people hope, peace, and understanding, just as a Shaman would be required by their community.
As leader of Tibetan spirituality, the Dalai Lama is obviously heavily involved in Tibetan Buddhism. A major practice of Tibetan Buddhism is meditation. The form of meditation most common to Tibetan Buddhism is analytic meditation and focused meditation. Analytic and focused meditation involves focusing on a thought, and in depth consideration. It is encouraged that the individual engages in an internal debate within their mind until realisation is achieved. Once realisation is achieved, it is like an answer to a solution is discovered, and this answer is focused on for an extensive period of time. (Wallace, 1999)
Similar to Shamanism, this engagement into a trance-like state allows the Dalai Lama to focus on issues that are political, spiritual and crucial to the people of Tibet and the rest of the world. For a man who describes himself as a “simple Buddhist monk”(Verhaegen, 2002) he has inspired millions of people around the world. This positive inspiration created by a single individual is a sure sign of someone who has a spiritual power, characteristic of a Shaman.
The Dalai Lama’s teachings encourage happiness, religious harmony, peace and the protection of the environment. In his speeches he gives advice, and answers many difficult questions that are posed. It is not uncommon for the Dalai Lama to engage in lengthy question and answer sessions after his public talks. (Verhaegen, 2002)It seems that millions of people find comfort in his words, and his advice. A Shaman may play an integral role in healing members of the community, and the comfort and emotional wellbeing the Dalai Lama extends upon so many people can also be seen as a form of healing. The Dalai Lama may not be physically healing people like a Shaman of the traditional sense does, but it is clear that he has a positive effect on many peoples’ minds and souls.
As a mediator for the community, the Dalai Lama has played a huge role, especially since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1949. The Dalai Lama was forced into exile in 1959, and since then, has fought a non-violent struggle for the liberation of Tibet, which resulted in him being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. It is this constant non-violent battle that gives so many people hope for peace and liberation. (Verhaegen, 2002) It is his compassion and belief for inter-religion harmony that influences so many people to be happy.
It may be difficult to understand how exactly the Dalai Lama can be perceived as a modern day Shaman, however a brief summary of the reasons should make it clear. Just like a Shaman, the Dalai Lama practices a ritual that allows him to focus on an issue to try and conceive an answer. There may not be drumming or chanting, but nevertheless, the Dalai Lama enters an altered state of consciousness to seek answers to a variety of issues. The Dalai Lama then humbly preaches what he believes, and what he has learnt through meditation. His teachings are healing, comforting and encouraging to millions of people. The Dalai Lamas goal is to restore harmony to Tibet and its people, as well as even broader issues such as promoting world peace. Similarly to a Shaman healing and comforting members of their community, followers of the Dalai Lamas teachings find comfort in his words.
It is clear that spirituality is the foundation of the Dalai Lama’s beliefs. His position in the world community as a spiritual leader and the process involved in his method of teaching and practicing can be compared to the role of a Shaman. To have such a universal influence shows that not only are his teachings powerful, but that some aspects of Shamanism – healing, guiding and to finding answers through an altered state of consciousness – are also a universal part of many religions and cultures.
References:
Mircea, E. (1964). Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy. Bollingen Series LXXVI, 3-7
Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). Types of Shaman. Shamanism in Sibera. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in Social Anthropology.
Wallace, B. A. (1999). The Buddhist Tradition of Samatha: Methods for Refining and Examining Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (2-3), 175-187.
Verhaegen, A. (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies (15), 6.
Wednesday, September 24, 2008
Monday, September 1, 2008
Religious Cultural Milieu
Religious Cultural Milieu
Surrounding an altered state of consciousness a number of phenomenon are purported to occur causing shifts from the conscious perception of awareness, these include: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking to mention a few (Tart, 1972). Whilst some altered states of consciousness are associated with psychological pathology those associated with world religions are for the purposes of healing, divination and communicating with spirits. The relationship between the supernatural the sacred and the religious in order to transcend the bounds of reality provides a basis from which to propel when searching for a definition of world religious practices and their associated states of altered consciousness (Stein & Stein, 2008). Within the first article Bevir (1994), in an attempt to "reconcile religious life with a modern world dominated by a scientific spirit" presents Blavatsky a prominent spiritualist. Within the second article Abram (1997) contrasts traditional sorcerers and shamans to an industrialised western world and lastly Metzner (1998) compares psychedelic substances and the utilisation of their potency for therapeutic effect within therapies from traditional shamanic practices and those of modern western society. The stark differences between altered states of consciousness embedded within a foreign cultural religious milieu for example by the dzankris of Nepal and altered states of consciousness from those same religious practices produced within a western cultural milieu is highlighted.
Bevir (1994) provides Blavatsky's argument in order to introduce the idea of occultism, which is neglected within the literature. For the purpose of validating the underlying sacred dimensions of the truth as presented by Blavatsky, reductionism within the sciences is declared. An array of secularists, theologists and theosophists provide an exploratory feel to the point at hand. Blavatsky's statement (1977 as cited in Bevir, 1994) " Occultism or magic…stands in relation to spiritualism as the infinite to the finite, as the cause to the effect, or the unitary to the multifariousness" is utilised to exhibit her approach. Creationist theories were debunked via scientific discoveries made by geologists and natural scientists within the Victorian schools, as a response occultism is thought to gap the schism. Within Blavatsky's proposed cosmology the perfected will can influence the third plane, that is the plane that links the material with the divine of all things, this is the place where magicians and occultists reside, her argument is that all laws of nature are not known. Ancient wisdom is allegedly the source of all religions and where it once resided in ancient Egypt it is now residing with the Brahmans. Buddha is thought to have picked up these ideas, which run along a similar vein. The underlying esoteric understanding is believed to be out of reach for scientists and scholars. Bevir's (1994) critic of Blavatsky's tendency to be biased and selective in her sources when building her argument is obvious. Replacement for Christianity's moral grounding by "vicarious atonement" is via responsibility for oneself, as "unity with the divine" requires a moral obligation. Obviously an altered state of consciousness within this domain is utilised for the purposes of relating to and influencing the spirit world and the cosmology within which it resides.
In the second article altered states of consciousness are described from the standpoint of a magician on a sojourn to find traditional dukuns and dzankris where perception is thought to be the medium of alteration. For the shaman an altered state of consciousness is utilised to access the spirit world for the purposes of healing, divination and the promotion of a successful hunt this benefits the community and the individuals that reside within it (Stein & Stein, 2008). Abram's experience as a slight-of-hand magician combined with his background in psychology lead him to explore this medium within a therapeutic context. Successes with highly distressed individuals began his interest in folk medicine. Abram's melodic account of his sojourn to Indonesia presents magic from an alternate perspective in contrast to his contemporary's ethnocentric western lens. His descriptive, flowing prose creates an environment within which he can expand and contrast his experiences with the sensuous landscape. His encounter with the myriad of insects begins his trip into alternate states of consciousness enhanced by the local magicians and his experiences. Whilst residing within communities in Nepal and Indonesia Abrams participation in rituals and ceremonies allows him to procure experience. The magicians place lay between the human community and that of the natural world where their influence extended to include weather patterns, landforms, forests, animals and plants. An altered state of consciousness is practiced constantly in the form of "rituals, trances, ecstasies and journeys" in order to restore and maintain equilibrium. Abrams reflection back to western industrialised society highlights our loss of contact with the natural environment as animals become biologically determined.
In the third article hallucinogenic drugs and plants are imbibed to induce altered states of consciousness in a therapeutic sense. A number of issues are presented related to the induction, maintenance and experience of altered states of consciousness. Tart (1972) has listed a number of methods that can be utilised in order to induce altered states of consciousness, firstly he presents reduction in or changes to sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, secondly is heightened sensory input from bombardment, thirdly is mental involvement, fourthly decreased alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens. Metzner (1998) discusses consciousness transformation utilising psychoactive substances. A comparison is made between western psychotherapies and shamanic rituals of healing and divination. The psycholytic properties of LSD were discovered and experiments were conducted within therapeutic guidelines with the aim to resolve conflicts and experience transcendence. Empathogens such as ecstasy appear next in the literature and induce expansion and centred awareness (Metzner, 1998). Grof (1985 as cited in Metzner, 1998) found individuals had transpersonal experiences once underlying conflicts and peri natal trauma were resolved. Metzner (1998) then leaps to Shamanic and spiritual literature in order to contrast it to therapy utilising psychoactive substances. Shamanic drumming and singing are utilised within their journeys to facilitate the individual through the experience, as is low lighting, there is the perception that the individual is in contact with another world containing spiritual beings. These spiritual beings once again, can belong to animals, plants, places, ancestors or other entities. The introduction of folk religious ceremonies introduces another use for altered consciousness that of community cohesion and protection against western consumerism. Hybrid therapeutic shamanism is briefly discussed.
In Conclusion different religious philosophies present alternate ways of entering into altered states of consciousness, for example chanting, drumming, dancing, music and hallucinogens. The purposes of entering the alternate states are varied from healing to divining and finding oneself. A common theme running throughout the articles is the attention to contact with the spirit world for the purposes of divination and healing. Miller (1995 as cited in Stein & Stein, 2008), conducted experiments with clown doctors within a New York based hospital and likened this practice to shamanic healing, for example, costumes, music, sleight-of-hand, providing social and group support whilst manipulating cultural symbolism. Metzner (1998) discusses hybrid shamanic rituals and religious folk ceremonies as western counterparts to traditional shamanic ritual healing. A number of arguments present themselves that is, whether or not western civilisation is losing touch with nature, whether or not science is contraindicated with spirituality and can western practitioners practice eastern cultural religions?
References
Abram, D. 1997. Ecology of Magic .New York: Random House. Vintage Books.
Bevir, M. 1994. West turns Eastward. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62. 3. pp747-767
Metzner, R. 1998. Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 30(4).
Stein, R. L. 2008. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic and Witchcraft. 2nd ed. United States of America: Pearson Education.
Tart, C. T. 1972. Altered States of Consciousness. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company Inc.
Baruss, I. 2003. Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Bourguignon, E. 1973. Religion, Altered States of Consciousness and Social Change. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Surrounding an altered state of consciousness a number of phenomenon are purported to occur causing shifts from the conscious perception of awareness, these include: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking to mention a few (Tart, 1972). Whilst some altered states of consciousness are associated with psychological pathology those associated with world religions are for the purposes of healing, divination and communicating with spirits. The relationship between the supernatural the sacred and the religious in order to transcend the bounds of reality provides a basis from which to propel when searching for a definition of world religious practices and their associated states of altered consciousness (Stein & Stein, 2008). Within the first article Bevir (1994), in an attempt to "reconcile religious life with a modern world dominated by a scientific spirit" presents Blavatsky a prominent spiritualist. Within the second article Abram (1997) contrasts traditional sorcerers and shamans to an industrialised western world and lastly Metzner (1998) compares psychedelic substances and the utilisation of their potency for therapeutic effect within therapies from traditional shamanic practices and those of modern western society. The stark differences between altered states of consciousness embedded within a foreign cultural religious milieu for example by the dzankris of Nepal and altered states of consciousness from those same religious practices produced within a western cultural milieu is highlighted.
Bevir (1994) provides Blavatsky's argument in order to introduce the idea of occultism, which is neglected within the literature. For the purpose of validating the underlying sacred dimensions of the truth as presented by Blavatsky, reductionism within the sciences is declared. An array of secularists, theologists and theosophists provide an exploratory feel to the point at hand. Blavatsky's statement (1977 as cited in Bevir, 1994) " Occultism or magic…stands in relation to spiritualism as the infinite to the finite, as the cause to the effect, or the unitary to the multifariousness" is utilised to exhibit her approach. Creationist theories were debunked via scientific discoveries made by geologists and natural scientists within the Victorian schools, as a response occultism is thought to gap the schism. Within Blavatsky's proposed cosmology the perfected will can influence the third plane, that is the plane that links the material with the divine of all things, this is the place where magicians and occultists reside, her argument is that all laws of nature are not known. Ancient wisdom is allegedly the source of all religions and where it once resided in ancient Egypt it is now residing with the Brahmans. Buddha is thought to have picked up these ideas, which run along a similar vein. The underlying esoteric understanding is believed to be out of reach for scientists and scholars. Bevir's (1994) critic of Blavatsky's tendency to be biased and selective in her sources when building her argument is obvious. Replacement for Christianity's moral grounding by "vicarious atonement" is via responsibility for oneself, as "unity with the divine" requires a moral obligation. Obviously an altered state of consciousness within this domain is utilised for the purposes of relating to and influencing the spirit world and the cosmology within which it resides.
In the second article altered states of consciousness are described from the standpoint of a magician on a sojourn to find traditional dukuns and dzankris where perception is thought to be the medium of alteration. For the shaman an altered state of consciousness is utilised to access the spirit world for the purposes of healing, divination and the promotion of a successful hunt this benefits the community and the individuals that reside within it (Stein & Stein, 2008). Abram's experience as a slight-of-hand magician combined with his background in psychology lead him to explore this medium within a therapeutic context. Successes with highly distressed individuals began his interest in folk medicine. Abram's melodic account of his sojourn to Indonesia presents magic from an alternate perspective in contrast to his contemporary's ethnocentric western lens. His descriptive, flowing prose creates an environment within which he can expand and contrast his experiences with the sensuous landscape. His encounter with the myriad of insects begins his trip into alternate states of consciousness enhanced by the local magicians and his experiences. Whilst residing within communities in Nepal and Indonesia Abrams participation in rituals and ceremonies allows him to procure experience. The magicians place lay between the human community and that of the natural world where their influence extended to include weather patterns, landforms, forests, animals and plants. An altered state of consciousness is practiced constantly in the form of "rituals, trances, ecstasies and journeys" in order to restore and maintain equilibrium. Abrams reflection back to western industrialised society highlights our loss of contact with the natural environment as animals become biologically determined.
In the third article hallucinogenic drugs and plants are imbibed to induce altered states of consciousness in a therapeutic sense. A number of issues are presented related to the induction, maintenance and experience of altered states of consciousness. Tart (1972) has listed a number of methods that can be utilised in order to induce altered states of consciousness, firstly he presents reduction in or changes to sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, secondly is heightened sensory input from bombardment, thirdly is mental involvement, fourthly decreased alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens. Metzner (1998) discusses consciousness transformation utilising psychoactive substances. A comparison is made between western psychotherapies and shamanic rituals of healing and divination. The psycholytic properties of LSD were discovered and experiments were conducted within therapeutic guidelines with the aim to resolve conflicts and experience transcendence. Empathogens such as ecstasy appear next in the literature and induce expansion and centred awareness (Metzner, 1998). Grof (1985 as cited in Metzner, 1998) found individuals had transpersonal experiences once underlying conflicts and peri natal trauma were resolved. Metzner (1998) then leaps to Shamanic and spiritual literature in order to contrast it to therapy utilising psychoactive substances. Shamanic drumming and singing are utilised within their journeys to facilitate the individual through the experience, as is low lighting, there is the perception that the individual is in contact with another world containing spiritual beings. These spiritual beings once again, can belong to animals, plants, places, ancestors or other entities. The introduction of folk religious ceremonies introduces another use for altered consciousness that of community cohesion and protection against western consumerism. Hybrid therapeutic shamanism is briefly discussed.
In Conclusion different religious philosophies present alternate ways of entering into altered states of consciousness, for example chanting, drumming, dancing, music and hallucinogens. The purposes of entering the alternate states are varied from healing to divining and finding oneself. A common theme running throughout the articles is the attention to contact with the spirit world for the purposes of divination and healing. Miller (1995 as cited in Stein & Stein, 2008), conducted experiments with clown doctors within a New York based hospital and likened this practice to shamanic healing, for example, costumes, music, sleight-of-hand, providing social and group support whilst manipulating cultural symbolism. Metzner (1998) discusses hybrid shamanic rituals and religious folk ceremonies as western counterparts to traditional shamanic ritual healing. A number of arguments present themselves that is, whether or not western civilisation is losing touch with nature, whether or not science is contraindicated with spirituality and can western practitioners practice eastern cultural religions?
References
Abram, D. 1997. Ecology of Magic .New York: Random House. Vintage Books.
Bevir, M. 1994. West turns Eastward. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62. 3. pp747-767
Metzner, R. 1998. Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 30(4).
Stein, R. L. 2008. The Anthropology of Religion, Magic and Witchcraft. 2nd ed. United States of America: Pearson Education.
Tart, C. T. 1972. Altered States of Consciousness. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company Inc.
Baruss, I. 2003. Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Bourguignon, E. 1973. Religion, Altered States of Consciousness and Social Change. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Wednesday, August 27, 2008
reflection on healing
When I have the precious opportunity to catch up with loved ones and conversation deepens to surpass the everyday, we discuss with ‘dis-ease’ the future of ourselves and our children. There is a sense of isolation, sadness and a bewildering loss of meaning in relation to our ‘place’ in the world. My father calls it the black dog; it chews away the sunshine and attacks his soul with restrictive, invasive and oppressive qualities. Interestingly, he is an exemplar of success within the western, urban, capitalist paradigm. A self made millionaire who arose from impoverished beginnings to enjoy the material trappings and lifestyle his relentless work ethic delivered, along with a nervous breakdown. Recently retired and reflective, he finds himself left with a collection of ‘things’ he has built and accumulated and an identity crisis punctuated by loneliness and suffering. Dad has a deep longing to live by the ocean. Walking barefoot on the sand for hours, his soul is soothed, he feels like he is home. This paper suggests that Western urban society need look to the ancient art of shamanic, transcendental and ecstatic experience to heal the communal disorder found on a global level.
Western and Indigenous worldviews are oppositional in relation to both community and the natural world (Callicott, 1982). These worldviews are diverse geographically and culturally and are sanctioned accordingly (Katz, 1976). Individuals are ‘grown up’ within their communities and are born into a particular ‘way of knowing’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). Urban western society is built on a competitive, individualistic and hierarchical premise that divides and alienates individuals from each other and nature (Katz, 1976; St John, 2001). The natural world is valued in terms of economic ownership and dissected via scientific and mathematical reason (Callicott, 1982; St John, 2001). Exploitation of the earth’s resources for industrial and consumer use has rapidly depleted our natural world and current concern over sustainability of natural resources is a familiar discourse (Callicott, 1982).
In contrast, Indigenous shamanic societies do not separate the natural world from the human world (Callicott, 1982). According to animist epistemology, the natural world is sacred and invested with spiritual potency (Callicott, 1982). The health of both human and non human members is intrinsic to the collective wellbeing of the community (Callicott, 1982). All souls are active agents engaged in reciprocal and respectful relationships and shamanic ritual healing practice restores and maintains harmony between ecological members (Callicott, 1982; Driver, 1992). Ritual participation includes many individuals from the community and offers the cyclic opportunity of physical/emotional support and education, providing a sense of ‘place’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). The Indigenous shamanic tradition employs ‘techniques of ecstasy’ such as drumming, chanting, breath manipulation, singing, dancing, sensory deprivation, and so on, during shamanic ritual healing (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1997). Ecstatic tools aid individuals in achieving altered states of consciousness and allow the soul to transcend the secular into the sacred with the aim of deep listening, communication and healing for communal purposes (Winkleman, 1997).
I do not suggest misappropriation of Indigenous cultures to heal urban western society. Rather, an entry into reciprocal relationships with each other, other cultures and nature, with the aim of addressing the legacy of global genocide, left by the dominant Eurocentric worldview (Callicott, 1982). Institutionalisation of scientific ‘truth’ as the western ‘way of knowing’ does not validate experiential, intuitive and sensory responses by individuals within this social schema (Callicott, 1982; Winkleman, 1997). Western urban society is culturally conditioned to place shamanic, transcendent and ecstatic experiences with the Indigenous ‘other’; in the primitive and distant past, from which we have evolved (Callicott, 1982). However Winkleman (1987) argues, seeking states of consciousness that are out of the ordinary is an organic and biological response within all societies, on a global level. St John (2001) cites an awakening of consciousness within urban western society began in the 1960’s, in terms of reconnection with Indigenous and Pagan roots, and shamanic methods of healing. There is a plethora of keys available to unlock different levels of consciousness and enter transcendent states; workshops and festivals aimed at this awakening, abound within today’s Western society (St John, 2001). Ritual is a transformative act which in itself is adaptable and dynamic in accordance with history, location and society (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001, Winkleman, 1987). Shamanic healing is a communal process that often involves an individual calling and re-birthing process which can be a fearful and painful process (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1987). Community support and tuition is vital to ecstatic and transcendent ritual, ensuring both individual safety and social cohesion (Katz, 1976). The cyclic and interconnected nature of all beings within shamanic animist philosophy promotes the principle that healing work on the microcosm is reflected in the macrocosm and vice versa (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001). Participation in shamanic, transcendental and ecstatic experience creates a pathway for western urban individuals to redefine their spirituality and experience the profound.
It is not surprising that my loved ones are full of gnawing ‘dis-ease’ at the same time the natural world is calling out for help and nurturance. Nor is it surprising for me that the only clear thought, splicing through my father’s depression, is his call to the ocean. It is his way of connecting with the majestic and numinous that surrounds and envelopes us all. The boundaries between the secular and sacred, the profound and profane; quiver and dissolve. I am lost within the anticipation and culmination of an ecstatic state that envelopes my entire being. I climb to the summit only to discover it dwells both within and beyond me. I transcend ordinary waking consciousness and acknowledge and praise the continuum of consciousness on which I see-saw throughout my days, weeks, years and lifetimes.
References Cited
Callicott, J. (1982). Traditional American Indian and Western European attitudes toward nature: An overview. Environmental ethics, 4(1), 293-318.
Driver, T. (1992). Transformation. In The magic of ritual: our need for liberating rites that transform our lives and our communities (pp. 166-191). San Francisco: Harper.
Katz, R. (1976). Education for transcendence. In R. Lee & I. DeVore (Eds.), Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbours (pp. 281-302). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
St John, G. (2001). Heal thy self – thy planet: Confest, eco-spirituality – the self/earth nexus. Australian religion studies review, 14(1), 97-112.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp. 393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.
Western and Indigenous worldviews are oppositional in relation to both community and the natural world (Callicott, 1982). These worldviews are diverse geographically and culturally and are sanctioned accordingly (Katz, 1976). Individuals are ‘grown up’ within their communities and are born into a particular ‘way of knowing’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). Urban western society is built on a competitive, individualistic and hierarchical premise that divides and alienates individuals from each other and nature (Katz, 1976; St John, 2001). The natural world is valued in terms of economic ownership and dissected via scientific and mathematical reason (Callicott, 1982; St John, 2001). Exploitation of the earth’s resources for industrial and consumer use has rapidly depleted our natural world and current concern over sustainability of natural resources is a familiar discourse (Callicott, 1982).
In contrast, Indigenous shamanic societies do not separate the natural world from the human world (Callicott, 1982). According to animist epistemology, the natural world is sacred and invested with spiritual potency (Callicott, 1982). The health of both human and non human members is intrinsic to the collective wellbeing of the community (Callicott, 1982). All souls are active agents engaged in reciprocal and respectful relationships and shamanic ritual healing practice restores and maintains harmony between ecological members (Callicott, 1982; Driver, 1992). Ritual participation includes many individuals from the community and offers the cyclic opportunity of physical/emotional support and education, providing a sense of ‘place’ (Driver, 1992; Katz, 1976). The Indigenous shamanic tradition employs ‘techniques of ecstasy’ such as drumming, chanting, breath manipulation, singing, dancing, sensory deprivation, and so on, during shamanic ritual healing (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1997). Ecstatic tools aid individuals in achieving altered states of consciousness and allow the soul to transcend the secular into the sacred with the aim of deep listening, communication and healing for communal purposes (Winkleman, 1997).
I do not suggest misappropriation of Indigenous cultures to heal urban western society. Rather, an entry into reciprocal relationships with each other, other cultures and nature, with the aim of addressing the legacy of global genocide, left by the dominant Eurocentric worldview (Callicott, 1982). Institutionalisation of scientific ‘truth’ as the western ‘way of knowing’ does not validate experiential, intuitive and sensory responses by individuals within this social schema (Callicott, 1982; Winkleman, 1997). Western urban society is culturally conditioned to place shamanic, transcendent and ecstatic experiences with the Indigenous ‘other’; in the primitive and distant past, from which we have evolved (Callicott, 1982). However Winkleman (1987) argues, seeking states of consciousness that are out of the ordinary is an organic and biological response within all societies, on a global level. St John (2001) cites an awakening of consciousness within urban western society began in the 1960’s, in terms of reconnection with Indigenous and Pagan roots, and shamanic methods of healing. There is a plethora of keys available to unlock different levels of consciousness and enter transcendent states; workshops and festivals aimed at this awakening, abound within today’s Western society (St John, 2001). Ritual is a transformative act which in itself is adaptable and dynamic in accordance with history, location and society (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001, Winkleman, 1987). Shamanic healing is a communal process that often involves an individual calling and re-birthing process which can be a fearful and painful process (Driver, 1992; Winkleman, 1987). Community support and tuition is vital to ecstatic and transcendent ritual, ensuring both individual safety and social cohesion (Katz, 1976). The cyclic and interconnected nature of all beings within shamanic animist philosophy promotes the principle that healing work on the microcosm is reflected in the macrocosm and vice versa (Driver, 1992; St John, 2001). Participation in shamanic, transcendental and ecstatic experience creates a pathway for western urban individuals to redefine their spirituality and experience the profound.
It is not surprising that my loved ones are full of gnawing ‘dis-ease’ at the same time the natural world is calling out for help and nurturance. Nor is it surprising for me that the only clear thought, splicing through my father’s depression, is his call to the ocean. It is his way of connecting with the majestic and numinous that surrounds and envelopes us all. The boundaries between the secular and sacred, the profound and profane; quiver and dissolve. I am lost within the anticipation and culmination of an ecstatic state that envelopes my entire being. I climb to the summit only to discover it dwells both within and beyond me. I transcend ordinary waking consciousness and acknowledge and praise the continuum of consciousness on which I see-saw throughout my days, weeks, years and lifetimes.
References Cited
Callicott, J. (1982). Traditional American Indian and Western European attitudes toward nature: An overview. Environmental ethics, 4(1), 293-318.
Driver, T. (1992). Transformation. In The magic of ritual: our need for liberating rites that transform our lives and our communities (pp. 166-191). San Francisco: Harper.
Katz, R. (1976). Education for transcendence. In R. Lee & I. DeVore (Eds.), Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbours (pp. 281-302). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
St John, G. (2001). Heal thy self – thy planet: Confest, eco-spirituality – the self/earth nexus. Australian religion studies review, 14(1), 97-112.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp. 393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.
Sunday, August 24, 2008
Altered States of Consciousness: The Continuity of an Ancient Practice
by Brent Rogers
Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are widely reported religious behaviours, and have been suggested to be something that may be universal in human societies (Winkelman, 1997). Indigenous shamans from around the world have been using entering ASCs to help and to heal individuals and their community for perhaps, thousands of years (Winkelman, 1997). ASC has been used by modern Western psychotherapists, assisting in the treatment of patients working through a range of ailments (Metzner, 1998). Commonplace in our society even today individuals enter ASC aided by meditation, hallucinogens, designer drugs, alcohol and dance music. The following paper is a review of three articles that examine some of these themes. While there are many ways in which ASC is induced, and different rituals and practices that incorporate ASC across different cultures, sub-cultures and communities it will be seen that entering ASCs may offer direct and indirect therapeutic value, physically, psychologically and spiritually, and that people inducing ASC appears to be an ongoing phenomenon.
In his article, Winkelman (1997) discusses the perhaps universal phenomenon of ASC in human religious behaviour, where the shaman enters a trance state to interact with spiritual entities for the purpose of divination, protection, healing, and to aid in community hunting activities. This state can be induced by ingesting hallucinogens, chanting and drumming in rituals and ceremony, fasting and water deprivation, music, meditation, prolonged periods of dancing or exercise, opiates, sensory deprivation, and community ritual (Winkelman, 1997). What is interesting is that ASC induces physiological changes where a state of parasympathetic dominance develops, involving a slowing of brain wave activity and an increase in hemispheric synchronisation (Winkelman, 1997). Furthermore, ASC are associated with greater activity of the right hemisphere and non-frontal parts of the brain which contrast with the ordinary waking state of awareness (OWS) dominated by the left (the rational, verbal linear modes of experience). This may help to explain why people in ASC can have “other worldly” experience, such as communicating with spiritual beings, accessing higher knowledge, or spiritual healing. With the “ordinary world” level of perception somewhat displaced (the linear, logical, normal day-today existence that we normally experience), this different level of awareness may enable a person in an ASC to perceive things they normally wouldn’t, perhaps even different levels of existence. Winkelman (1997) also points the therapeutic value of this physiological state that may actually increase physiological and physiological well being as the person enters into a “relaxation response.”
This idea of ASC facilitating in the healing process is one that Metzner (1998) also examined as he compared the relationship between hallucinogenic plants and drugs, and their role in the healing processes in both shamanism and psychotherapy. In the latter part of last century, LSD was experimented with in psychotherapy treatments across Europe to help treat a range of neurotic conditions and maladaptive behaviour. Metzner (1998) outlines commonalities noticed during these hallucinogenic-based psychotherapy sessions including an expanded state of consciousness, giving the individual insight into their behaviours and conditions. LSD was seen to amplify psychic contents, putting it under a microscope and open up previously inaccessible or unconscious processes. It was also discovered universally that LSD could, and did produce spiritual experiences, sometimes transcending ideas of time and space, a notion no doubt already understood by many traditional shamans that used similar plan-derived substances.
Metzner (1998) draws parallels between the Western psychedelic-psychotherapy and traditional shamanism. He suggests that both shamanistic rituals and psychotherapy are carefully structured, healing rituals in which a small group of people come together (though psychotherapy only involves two people). Appropriately however, Metzner (1998) does acknowledge the underlying paradigms behind treatment and illness are completely different, and that shamanistic ceremonies are quite different in that usually there is little or no talking, chanting and/or drumming are used, and are done in little or no light. Additionally, it should be mentioned that there are a are a large number of different reasons why a shamanic practitioner may enter into ASC, such as aiding the community in other ways or gaining knowledge (Winkelman, 1997). In any case, Metzner (1998) does demonstrate a Western-developed alternative in using ASC to facilitate healing.
A more ambiguous use of ASC is perhaps in Western rave culture. John (2006) considers the electronic dance music (EDM) scene as a potential religious practice, presenting arguments from a mass of literature. The rise of MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) and the emergence of rave culture in the 1990s, with youths globally getting ‘loved up’ and dancing all night at raves held in warehouses, forests and clubs to EDM are seen as a religious expression by some. Gauthier’s (2004a; cited in John, 2006) view of the rave attendance is that of ‘religious impulse’. The dance party experience can be “experimental, transcendence, transformative”, the equivalent of a conversion experience (Hutson 1999; cited in John 2006). One can be viewed at a ‘ritual’, for example, outdoor ‘doofs’ employ nature, pumping, hypnotic music, dance, body, hallucinogenic, art, “freaky costumes”, and the ceremonial social gathering of performers, very much with the intent of reaching ASC ( John, 2006). It is not difficult to see the parallels with other ecstatic ceremonies, and that ASC rituals are not confined only to small indigenous communities, but embedded within our society’s subcultures. Perhaps these are spiritual events, a “holy union” of our people? Maybe they are an innate counter-response to a Western society stripped of community and bound up in an individualistic ideology? It has been suggested that repeated exposure through dance events may actually enable participants to retain and achieve ASC naturally (John, 2006), so perhaps we are chasing a new form of consciousness? Whatever the case, considering rave culture as a religious practice of Western youth is an interesting school of thought.
The practice of entering ASC then appears to be an ongoing phenomenon, even in modern times. Various induction techniques have been explored as a means to reach ASC with a look at hallucinogens as such a vehicle. There is support that entering an ASC may have therapeutic value, with shamans using the mystical properties to heal and aid the community or an individual (Winkelman, 1997). Psychotherapy-hallucinogen treatments have revealed that ASC may help patients overcome psychological and psychosomatic disorders by unveiling normally inaccessible areas of the psyche, helping with the resolution of unconscious conflicts (Metzner, 1998). Even though helping/healing is the focus of the shaman and psychotherapist, the techniques and underlying beliefs appear very different. ASC are still used today as people all over the Western world gather at dance events, utilising drugs and music as a means to enter into the ecstatic state. Maybe they too are healing, driven by some invisible, innate urge? Maybe they are simply longing to lose themselves in an egoless, colourless, selfless space for a short time, away from an individualistic society, to experience union with their human brothers and sisters? Whatever be the case, as times change and eons pass the phenomenon and desire to enter ASC appears to remain. Let’s hope that we continue ASC not as a means to escape, but to heal, to help and to know.
Metzner, R. (1998). Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(4), 331-341.
Winkelman, M. (Ed.). (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. Anthopology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
In his article, Winkelman (1997) discusses the perhaps universal phenomenon of ASC in human religious behaviour, where the shaman enters a trance state to interact with spiritual entities for the purpose of divination, protection, healing, and to aid in community hunting activities. This state can be induced by ingesting hallucinogens, chanting and drumming in rituals and ceremony, fasting and water deprivation, music, meditation, prolonged periods of dancing or exercise, opiates, sensory deprivation, and community ritual (Winkelman, 1997). What is interesting is that ASC induces physiological changes where a state of parasympathetic dominance develops, involving a slowing of brain wave activity and an increase in hemispheric synchronisation (Winkelman, 1997). Furthermore, ASC are associated with greater activity of the right hemisphere and non-frontal parts of the brain which contrast with the ordinary waking state of awareness (OWS) dominated by the left (the rational, verbal linear modes of experience). This may help to explain why people in ASC can have “other worldly” experience, such as communicating with spiritual beings, accessing higher knowledge, or spiritual healing. With the “ordinary world” level of perception somewhat displaced (the linear, logical, normal day-today existence that we normally experience), this different level of awareness may enable a person in an ASC to perceive things they normally wouldn’t, perhaps even different levels of existence. Winkelman (1997) also points the therapeutic value of this physiological state that may actually increase physiological and physiological well being as the person enters into a “relaxation response.”
This idea of ASC facilitating in the healing process is one that Metzner (1998) also examined as he compared the relationship between hallucinogenic plants and drugs, and their role in the healing processes in both shamanism and psychotherapy. In the latter part of last century, LSD was experimented with in psychotherapy treatments across Europe to help treat a range of neurotic conditions and maladaptive behaviour. Metzner (1998) outlines commonalities noticed during these hallucinogenic-based psychotherapy sessions including an expanded state of consciousness, giving the individual insight into their behaviours and conditions. LSD was seen to amplify psychic contents, putting it under a microscope and open up previously inaccessible or unconscious processes. It was also discovered universally that LSD could, and did produce spiritual experiences, sometimes transcending ideas of time and space, a notion no doubt already understood by many traditional shamans that used similar plan-derived substances.
Metzner (1998) draws parallels between the Western psychedelic-psychotherapy and traditional shamanism. He suggests that both shamanistic rituals and psychotherapy are carefully structured, healing rituals in which a small group of people come together (though psychotherapy only involves two people). Appropriately however, Metzner (1998) does acknowledge the underlying paradigms behind treatment and illness are completely different, and that shamanistic ceremonies are quite different in that usually there is little or no talking, chanting and/or drumming are used, and are done in little or no light. Additionally, it should be mentioned that there are a are a large number of different reasons why a shamanic practitioner may enter into ASC, such as aiding the community in other ways or gaining knowledge (Winkelman, 1997). In any case, Metzner (1998) does demonstrate a Western-developed alternative in using ASC to facilitate healing.
A more ambiguous use of ASC is perhaps in Western rave culture. John (2006) considers the electronic dance music (EDM) scene as a potential religious practice, presenting arguments from a mass of literature. The rise of MDMA (‘Ecstasy’) and the emergence of rave culture in the 1990s, with youths globally getting ‘loved up’ and dancing all night at raves held in warehouses, forests and clubs to EDM are seen as a religious expression by some. Gauthier’s (2004a; cited in John, 2006) view of the rave attendance is that of ‘religious impulse’. The dance party experience can be “experimental, transcendence, transformative”, the equivalent of a conversion experience (Hutson 1999; cited in John 2006). One can be viewed at a ‘ritual’, for example, outdoor ‘doofs’ employ nature, pumping, hypnotic music, dance, body, hallucinogenic, art, “freaky costumes”, and the ceremonial social gathering of performers, very much with the intent of reaching ASC ( John, 2006). It is not difficult to see the parallels with other ecstatic ceremonies, and that ASC rituals are not confined only to small indigenous communities, but embedded within our society’s subcultures. Perhaps these are spiritual events, a “holy union” of our people? Maybe they are an innate counter-response to a Western society stripped of community and bound up in an individualistic ideology? It has been suggested that repeated exposure through dance events may actually enable participants to retain and achieve ASC naturally (John, 2006), so perhaps we are chasing a new form of consciousness? Whatever the case, considering rave culture as a religious practice of Western youth is an interesting school of thought.
The practice of entering ASC then appears to be an ongoing phenomenon, even in modern times. Various induction techniques have been explored as a means to reach ASC with a look at hallucinogens as such a vehicle. There is support that entering an ASC may have therapeutic value, with shamans using the mystical properties to heal and aid the community or an individual (Winkelman, 1997). Psychotherapy-hallucinogen treatments have revealed that ASC may help patients overcome psychological and psychosomatic disorders by unveiling normally inaccessible areas of the psyche, helping with the resolution of unconscious conflicts (Metzner, 1998). Even though helping/healing is the focus of the shaman and psychotherapist, the techniques and underlying beliefs appear very different. ASC are still used today as people all over the Western world gather at dance events, utilising drugs and music as a means to enter into the ecstatic state. Maybe they too are healing, driven by some invisible, innate urge? Maybe they are simply longing to lose themselves in an egoless, colourless, selfless space for a short time, away from an individualistic society, to experience union with their human brothers and sisters? Whatever be the case, as times change and eons pass the phenomenon and desire to enter ASC appears to remain. Let’s hope that we continue ASC not as a means to escape, but to heal, to help and to know.
References
John, G. S. (2006). Electronic dance music and culture and religion: An overview. Culture and Religion, 7(1), 1-25.Metzner, R. (1998). Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(4), 331-341.
Winkelman, M. (Ed.). (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. Anthopology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
Thursday, August 21, 2008
Healing with Altered States of Consciousness, Western and Shamanic Approaches
By Abigale Johnson
Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are states that indigenous shamans have been accessing with journey work for thousands of years for the intent of healing and seeing, or divination (Grey 1995, Metzner 1998). Western psychology has also tried to access this form of healing, although from a completely different origin and intention, through the use of psychedelic drugs, hypnosis and other similar techniques. The worldviews, however, differ greatly, including the shamanic acknowledgement of spirit and connectedness of humans and the natural world, and the idea that illness is all of mind, body, spirit, community and environment, and that healing illness is rebalancing the patient with all of these aspects.
Although psychoactive substances are used in both western and shamanic societies for healing purposes, there are some fundamental differences in approach and intention. In western psychology, the accidental discovery of LSD provided a new study area where therapists could unlock the patient’s inner subconscious for analysis and later “resolution of inner conflict” (Metzner, 1998). But psychology’s knowledge and understanding of such drugs is limited, especially pertaining to long term effects, and the intentions and uses are quite variable throughout the history of psychedelic drug use. Shamans, however, are experts in the field of plant medicine, each with a library of thousands of plants and incredible understanding of their healing properties and effects on humans. Another key difference is the western role of the therapist, who is an observer (although experienced with the drug) of the patient, analyzing what is revealed about the psyche, and who guides the patient’s experience as a recognition of the importance of set (internal process) and setting (place, guidance). The Shaman also creates set and setting for a medicine ceremony, but with very specific and clear intentions of healing. In ceremony, the shaman works with the plant medicine and often with song to shape the journey (ASC) and works through the patient’s imbalances, reconstructing a healthy body (mental, physical and spiritual all in one). Unlike the western approach, the shaman usually journeys for the patient, and is, in the altered state, able to see the illness, how it got there and how to fix it by communication with the plant spirits, also unrecognized by western psychology. Metzner (1998) also goes on to talk about hybrid “neo-shamanic” culture, in which people with a western background are integrating therapies, bodywork and many healing and ASC techniques from different cultures, with many shamanic influences in ceremony structure and intention. This is an important direction because it makes the knowledge of thousands of years of shamanism accessible to the western world, and offers westerners a direct connection with spirit and community healing, two aspects seriously absent from modern psychology.
Rittner (2007) discusses the ayahuasca and icaro healing of the Shipibos in Peru, asking how ayahuasca, icaros and pattern healing work, and how the shamanic knowledge can be brought into western healing practices. This discusses the very precise process of an ayahuasca ceremony, but what’s important to note is the idea of illness as an imbalance of the everyday and the world of spirits, and the use of ayahuasca to travel to the world of spirits for healing. Traditionally the shaman takes the medicine, but the patient is also in an altered state, with the community and family also part of the ceremony. In this space, the shaman communicates with ayahuasca to see imbalances and blockages in the patient’s energy and uses the spirit songs or icaros to fight the sickness and lay healthy patterns, which settle on the patient, clearing up the blockages. The songs are important and both drive the journey, and have another geometric dimension, which actively heals as an energetic pattern, visible in the journey space (Rittner 2007). Rittner goes on to discuss uses of this form of healing in a western setting, where she includes the importance of social background and community, and the beauty and art of ceremony as part of the healing process. Also, the ability to surrender to the shaman’s healing, rather than western view of therapy’s “help to help ourselves,” the shaman takes responsibility for your illness and only in healing blockages and patterns you hold, is there a way for you to help yourself. She also talks about the use of sound and voice healing, and “ritual body positions and ecstatic trance healing,” indicating the importance of altered states of consciousness, even without assist of plant medicine. She seems to exclude, however, the role of spirit and the intelligence of the natural world in her application to western healing, which it seems is a large reason for the separation between western and shamanic practice in the first place.
This separation from the spirit world and idea that the natural environment is a separate, nonliving resource, are two aspects of western healing that Leslie Grey (1995) seeks to alter. With her practice of “shamanic counseling” and discussion of ecopsychology, Grey asks the question of how to bridge shamanic knowledge of nature and human connection with western psychology. She discusses the origins of psychiatry as “devolution” rather than western defined “progress” starting with shamanism, through to hypnosis and on to Freud, and her personal experience that the “primal therapies” of shamanism are more powerful healers than what’s become western psychology. The main point she makes is that through ecopsychology, seen as healing self through healing environment, western and urbanized cultures are able to reconnect with nature as a part of themselves. In practice, the journeying (ASC) techniques of shamanism would be used as a way to connect with power animals, form allies with the spirits of nature, and also to reshape problems and see them from dynamic and new angles. The use of ASC is paramount in getting us out of the “urban rut” and allows us to tap into a world of truth and connection, of health through balance with community and environment. “When someone is ill, shamanism attempts to restore power to them by putting them back in harmony with life” (Grey 1995), and by recognizing the life and connection of everything in the world around us, we have to help the earth because we feel it is a part of ourselves that is hurting. Here again is the idea that “health equals balance with all living things”, and with the integration of this concept into western thought, and drawing on ancient shamanic knowledge, there is a hope for the future of personal, community and environmental health.
References
Grey L, (1995). Shamanic Counselling and Ecopsychology. In Ecopsychology: Restoring The Earth Healing The Mind, Eds, T Rozak, ME Gomes and AD Kanner. Sierra Club Books, San Franscisco.
Metzner R (1998). Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30 (4).
Rittner S (2007). Sound - Trance - Healing - The Sound and Pattern Medicine of the Shipibo in the Amazon Lowlands of Peru. Music Therapy Today, VIII (2) 196-235.
By Abigale Johnson
Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are states that indigenous shamans have been accessing with journey work for thousands of years for the intent of healing and seeing, or divination (Grey 1995, Metzner 1998). Western psychology has also tried to access this form of healing, although from a completely different origin and intention, through the use of psychedelic drugs, hypnosis and other similar techniques. The worldviews, however, differ greatly, including the shamanic acknowledgement of spirit and connectedness of humans and the natural world, and the idea that illness is all of mind, body, spirit, community and environment, and that healing illness is rebalancing the patient with all of these aspects.
Although psychoactive substances are used in both western and shamanic societies for healing purposes, there are some fundamental differences in approach and intention. In western psychology, the accidental discovery of LSD provided a new study area where therapists could unlock the patient’s inner subconscious for analysis and later “resolution of inner conflict” (Metzner, 1998). But psychology’s knowledge and understanding of such drugs is limited, especially pertaining to long term effects, and the intentions and uses are quite variable throughout the history of psychedelic drug use. Shamans, however, are experts in the field of plant medicine, each with a library of thousands of plants and incredible understanding of their healing properties and effects on humans. Another key difference is the western role of the therapist, who is an observer (although experienced with the drug) of the patient, analyzing what is revealed about the psyche, and who guides the patient’s experience as a recognition of the importance of set (internal process) and setting (place, guidance). The Shaman also creates set and setting for a medicine ceremony, but with very specific and clear intentions of healing. In ceremony, the shaman works with the plant medicine and often with song to shape the journey (ASC) and works through the patient’s imbalances, reconstructing a healthy body (mental, physical and spiritual all in one). Unlike the western approach, the shaman usually journeys for the patient, and is, in the altered state, able to see the illness, how it got there and how to fix it by communication with the plant spirits, also unrecognized by western psychology. Metzner (1998) also goes on to talk about hybrid “neo-shamanic” culture, in which people with a western background are integrating therapies, bodywork and many healing and ASC techniques from different cultures, with many shamanic influences in ceremony structure and intention. This is an important direction because it makes the knowledge of thousands of years of shamanism accessible to the western world, and offers westerners a direct connection with spirit and community healing, two aspects seriously absent from modern psychology.
Rittner (2007) discusses the ayahuasca and icaro healing of the Shipibos in Peru, asking how ayahuasca, icaros and pattern healing work, and how the shamanic knowledge can be brought into western healing practices. This discusses the very precise process of an ayahuasca ceremony, but what’s important to note is the idea of illness as an imbalance of the everyday and the world of spirits, and the use of ayahuasca to travel to the world of spirits for healing. Traditionally the shaman takes the medicine, but the patient is also in an altered state, with the community and family also part of the ceremony. In this space, the shaman communicates with ayahuasca to see imbalances and blockages in the patient’s energy and uses the spirit songs or icaros to fight the sickness and lay healthy patterns, which settle on the patient, clearing up the blockages. The songs are important and both drive the journey, and have another geometric dimension, which actively heals as an energetic pattern, visible in the journey space (Rittner 2007). Rittner goes on to discuss uses of this form of healing in a western setting, where she includes the importance of social background and community, and the beauty and art of ceremony as part of the healing process. Also, the ability to surrender to the shaman’s healing, rather than western view of therapy’s “help to help ourselves,” the shaman takes responsibility for your illness and only in healing blockages and patterns you hold, is there a way for you to help yourself. She also talks about the use of sound and voice healing, and “ritual body positions and ecstatic trance healing,” indicating the importance of altered states of consciousness, even without assist of plant medicine. She seems to exclude, however, the role of spirit and the intelligence of the natural world in her application to western healing, which it seems is a large reason for the separation between western and shamanic practice in the first place.
This separation from the spirit world and idea that the natural environment is a separate, nonliving resource, are two aspects of western healing that Leslie Grey (1995) seeks to alter. With her practice of “shamanic counseling” and discussion of ecopsychology, Grey asks the question of how to bridge shamanic knowledge of nature and human connection with western psychology. She discusses the origins of psychiatry as “devolution” rather than western defined “progress” starting with shamanism, through to hypnosis and on to Freud, and her personal experience that the “primal therapies” of shamanism are more powerful healers than what’s become western psychology. The main point she makes is that through ecopsychology, seen as healing self through healing environment, western and urbanized cultures are able to reconnect with nature as a part of themselves. In practice, the journeying (ASC) techniques of shamanism would be used as a way to connect with power animals, form allies with the spirits of nature, and also to reshape problems and see them from dynamic and new angles. The use of ASC is paramount in getting us out of the “urban rut” and allows us to tap into a world of truth and connection, of health through balance with community and environment. “When someone is ill, shamanism attempts to restore power to them by putting them back in harmony with life” (Grey 1995), and by recognizing the life and connection of everything in the world around us, we have to help the earth because we feel it is a part of ourselves that is hurting. Here again is the idea that “health equals balance with all living things”, and with the integration of this concept into western thought, and drawing on ancient shamanic knowledge, there is a hope for the future of personal, community and environmental health.
References
Grey L, (1995). Shamanic Counselling and Ecopsychology. In Ecopsychology: Restoring The Earth Healing The Mind, Eds, T Rozak, ME Gomes and AD Kanner. Sierra Club Books, San Franscisco.
Metzner R (1998). Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30 (4).
Rittner S (2007). Sound - Trance - Healing - The Sound and Pattern Medicine of the Shipibo in the Amazon Lowlands of Peru. Music Therapy Today, VIII (2) 196-235.
Wednesday, August 20, 2008
Summarys and Reflections
By Aaron Schafer
Noll, R. (1985) “Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism”, Current Anthropology, vol 26. No. 4. pp. 443-461.
Mental imagery cultivation is at the core of indigenous societies as a primary element in their religiousness that can be trained to be a powerful procurer of visions. The significance or legitimacy of mental imagery cannot be verified psychologically yet culturally specific visions are commonplace. This would suggest that despite the inability of science to fully understand mental imagery it has played a deep and meaningful role in the history of human religiousness.
It has been argued that mental imagery activates similar areas of the brain to that of actual sensory perception. Shamans are trained to enhance their ability to experience mental imagery. In this enhanced state it has been claimed that they can view objects as clearly in this internal world as they can in the external and physical. This training also leads to the ability to control imagery that includes being able to interact with beings in the spirit world and to start and stop these visions at will.
There are no written religious scriptures in shamanistic cultures; instead, religious knowledge is passed through generations verbally and experientially via these visions. The shaman “Knows and Remembers”, as the purveyor of cultural history.
Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.
The methods used by Anthropologists to study shamanistic cultures has evolved over time along with the attitude of western thought to the significance of dreams and visions. Dream significance was rejected in the 1800’s by popular western thought as an illusion as thought shifted from the importance of the spirit world to that of science and rationality. Freud famously rekindled the suggestion that dream states hold significance later on. Anthropologists also reworked their approach to shamanistic cultures moving away from being objective observers to the cultures they studied. They instead began to become part of these cultures, partaking in rituals and shedding new light on the significance of trance states experientially. If their experiences were truly reflections of their assumed culture then the data must be credible and unobtainable in any other way.
The philosophical results of this experiential method are that culturally specific groups believe whatever interests them or what they allow themselves to believe. To enter another universe of beliefs such as the shamanistic and adopt their spirit world as real is to adopt a reality separate from the western construction. The symbolism used to describe reality is different within different cognitive styles such as scientist or witch doctor and to switch styles via this experiential approach is to alter personal perception of reality.
From a psychological perspective Goulet and Noll present a similar thematic response. That is to say that typically, the psychological answer to suggestions that shamans are actually interacting with tangible entities in a spirit world is that it is a highly dubious presumption. They dismiss visionary states as phenomenology, however, they are assured that this is irrelevant. It is beyond the grasp of science to justify the “realness” of the visions.
Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.
The use of altered states of consciousness as a religious tool is a universal social phenomenon that has been demonstrated most prominently in unrelated shamanistic cultures. The legitimacy of these trance states is found culturally in the local belief that such states have religious significance, and biologically in the proven alteration of brain chemistry that can be attributed to the reported visions.
In hunter-gatherer tribes the shaman is a spiritual leader, the link between the people and the spirit world. Magico-religious practitioners from across the world display these core shamanistic characteristics but differ in their specific religious beliefs, socio-economic and political circumstances.
The biological reasoning behind these similarities shows that the various methods used to induce trance states are decreasing the frequency of brain wave patterns. This allows the shaman to enter into a state where they can have visions that they relate to their specific cultural and religious context. There are a variety of methods that shamans use to achieve trance states and some of these methods have been linked to specific spiritual results.
Winkelman and Goulet then go on to give different in depth justifications for the reasoning behind the legitimacy of these visions. Where Winkelman shows that the results of scientific tests reiterate the occurrence of vivid visions with cultural significance, Goulet takes a philosophical approach talking of reality construction. He also downplays the scientific approach by stating that anthropologists are presently researching shamanism experientially.
All three summaries are quick to point out that there is a scientific explanation for the religious benefits of these altered states. Certainly, from a biological standpoint, they show how brain waves are slowed down, how training enhances imagery cultivation, and how particular ACS inducing methods are capable of producing such states. They also agree that shamanism is a universal phenomenon that occurs in non-interacting groups which affirms the ability for altered states of consciousness to induce culturally specific trance states.
The most problematic element within these articles is that they are validating the beliefs of a group of people to a western audience by revealing concrete scientific evidence. Then, after presenting this evidence, they proceed to refute that it is even necessary to approach the issue scientifically by taking a philosophical stance. They are basically saying that they have a wealth of scientific evidence to prove their point but that one should move beyond this approach and realise that the way a group of people constructs their reality presupposes what is real to them. Outsiders should view it as just another way of representing the reality that we all exist in. It would have been much easier for the three authors to simply surpass any scientific explanations and make cultural reality construction the primary point as it is a very admirable and important message that has been hidden by a mass of crowd pleasing scientific pop culture that the authors are clearly not devoted to.
Mental imagery cultivation is at the core of indigenous societies as a primary element in their religiousness that can be trained to be a powerful procurer of visions. The significance or legitimacy of mental imagery cannot be verified psychologically yet culturally specific visions are commonplace. This would suggest that despite the inability of science to fully understand mental imagery it has played a deep and meaningful role in the history of human religiousness.
It has been argued that mental imagery activates similar areas of the brain to that of actual sensory perception. Shamans are trained to enhance their ability to experience mental imagery. In this enhanced state it has been claimed that they can view objects as clearly in this internal world as they can in the external and physical. This training also leads to the ability to control imagery that includes being able to interact with beings in the spirit world and to start and stop these visions at will.
There are no written religious scriptures in shamanistic cultures; instead, religious knowledge is passed through generations verbally and experientially via these visions. The shaman “Knows and Remembers”, as the purveyor of cultural history.
Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.
The methods used by Anthropologists to study shamanistic cultures has evolved over time along with the attitude of western thought to the significance of dreams and visions. Dream significance was rejected in the 1800’s by popular western thought as an illusion as thought shifted from the importance of the spirit world to that of science and rationality. Freud famously rekindled the suggestion that dream states hold significance later on. Anthropologists also reworked their approach to shamanistic cultures moving away from being objective observers to the cultures they studied. They instead began to become part of these cultures, partaking in rituals and shedding new light on the significance of trance states experientially. If their experiences were truly reflections of their assumed culture then the data must be credible and unobtainable in any other way.
The philosophical results of this experiential method are that culturally specific groups believe whatever interests them or what they allow themselves to believe. To enter another universe of beliefs such as the shamanistic and adopt their spirit world as real is to adopt a reality separate from the western construction. The symbolism used to describe reality is different within different cognitive styles such as scientist or witch doctor and to switch styles via this experiential approach is to alter personal perception of reality.
From a psychological perspective Goulet and Noll present a similar thematic response. That is to say that typically, the psychological answer to suggestions that shamans are actually interacting with tangible entities in a spirit world is that it is a highly dubious presumption. They dismiss visionary states as phenomenology, however, they are assured that this is irrelevant. It is beyond the grasp of science to justify the “realness” of the visions.
Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.
The use of altered states of consciousness as a religious tool is a universal social phenomenon that has been demonstrated most prominently in unrelated shamanistic cultures. The legitimacy of these trance states is found culturally in the local belief that such states have religious significance, and biologically in the proven alteration of brain chemistry that can be attributed to the reported visions.
In hunter-gatherer tribes the shaman is a spiritual leader, the link between the people and the spirit world. Magico-religious practitioners from across the world display these core shamanistic characteristics but differ in their specific religious beliefs, socio-economic and political circumstances.
The biological reasoning behind these similarities shows that the various methods used to induce trance states are decreasing the frequency of brain wave patterns. This allows the shaman to enter into a state where they can have visions that they relate to their specific cultural and religious context. There are a variety of methods that shamans use to achieve trance states and some of these methods have been linked to specific spiritual results.
Winkelman and Goulet then go on to give different in depth justifications for the reasoning behind the legitimacy of these visions. Where Winkelman shows that the results of scientific tests reiterate the occurrence of vivid visions with cultural significance, Goulet takes a philosophical approach talking of reality construction. He also downplays the scientific approach by stating that anthropologists are presently researching shamanism experientially.
All three summaries are quick to point out that there is a scientific explanation for the religious benefits of these altered states. Certainly, from a biological standpoint, they show how brain waves are slowed down, how training enhances imagery cultivation, and how particular ACS inducing methods are capable of producing such states. They also agree that shamanism is a universal phenomenon that occurs in non-interacting groups which affirms the ability for altered states of consciousness to induce culturally specific trance states.
The most problematic element within these articles is that they are validating the beliefs of a group of people to a western audience by revealing concrete scientific evidence. Then, after presenting this evidence, they proceed to refute that it is even necessary to approach the issue scientifically by taking a philosophical stance. They are basically saying that they have a wealth of scientific evidence to prove their point but that one should move beyond this approach and realise that the way a group of people constructs their reality presupposes what is real to them. Outsiders should view it as just another way of representing the reality that we all exist in. It would have been much easier for the three authors to simply surpass any scientific explanations and make cultural reality construction the primary point as it is a very admirable and important message that has been hidden by a mass of crowd pleasing scientific pop culture that the authors are clearly not devoted to.
Review
Review
By Nick Barclay
41390704
The three texts chosen to study in this review are, The Role Played by Mandalas in Navajo and Tibetan Rituals by Stanley Krippner, Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in
Psychotherapy and Shamanism by Ralph Metzner, and Complementary Therapy for Addiction: “Drumming out the Drugs” by Michael Winkelman. All three texts deal with the use of shamanic practices in the process of healing and/or drug rehabilitation, whether it is through the ingestion of traditional psychoactive drugs, the use of mediation or the therapeutic use of ritualized drum circles.
Metzner’s article focuses on the difference between the way in which psychoactive drugs are used in traditional and western healing and healthcare. In the first part of the article Metzner focuses on psychedelic psychotherapy within Western culture. He states that in western culture psychoactive drugs are used to strengthen and magnify the process of self-reflection and finally understanding. He notes that while many of the same psychoactive drugs are used in traditional practices they are utilized in a completely different way because of the ‘profound differences between them in underlying worldview and assumptions about the nature of reality’ (Metzner 1998). Metzner explores how western cultures, in particular the USA, experimented with using psychoactive drugs, mainly LSD, as a mind control device. However the experiments resulted in failure because instead of making the subjects susceptible to mind-control, Psychoactives had the ‘unnerving propensity to suspend the existing mental programming and thereby release one into awesome worlds of cosmic consciousness’ (Metzner 1998). He goes on to say, like Winkelman, that these shamanic techniques can often help treat victims of substance abuse, such as alcoholism. Metzner claims that it is because of the psychoactive’s propensity to induce a simulation of the bottoming out experience, which in turn leads to insight and transformation. Metzner goes on to look at shamanic rituals of healing and divination. This section links closely with Winkleman’s article. Metzner states that shamanic rituals of healing and divination involve primarily the shaman or healer taking ‘medicine’, mostly psychoactive drugs such as mushrooms or mescaline cacti, in order to “see” the causes of illness and know what kind of remedy to apply. He describes three characteristics of this ritualized healing process, one is the lack of normal communication, there is virtually no talking. The second trait is ritualized singing or chanting, similar to Winkleman’s drumming circles. Metzner states that the fast paced singing and drumming helps the healer to move through the visions. The third trait is that most of these ceremonies are performed in low light or complete darkness, to help with the emergence of visions. Metzner goes on to briefly touch on modern forms of the shamanic process, such as certain churches and rave parties in which participants take psychoactive drugs and use the music to engage in a trance state.
Winkleman explores the effect of drumming circles on victims of drug abuse. He explores different peoples use of these drumming circles, which seem remarkably similar to each other and to traditional shamanic drumming rituals. Most of Winkleman’s examples follow a basic structure, which is a warm-up exercise to familiarize participants with each other and the drum. After the warm-up the group engages in a from of meditation involving rhythmic striking of the drums and a repetitive vocal chant, much like the practices taking place inside the mandalas of Krippner’s article. The rhythmic singing helps the participants to start the “letting go” process through visualization. The next part is spontaneous playing, which heightens non-verbal communication, something that Winkleman believes integral to begin the process of rehabilitation. After this the next step is a call and response exercise, which connects the group together, which helps with the healing process by adding the energy of many. The most important part of the process however is the meditation that follows the drumming circle. The meditation is conducted with the aid of appropriate music and percussion instruments, designed to relax the participants and aid in the visualization process to ultimately connect them with a higher power. Winkleman states that the both the drumming and meditation are necessary to the process of healing and rehabilitation. The drumming helps to pull the group together into a cohesive collection that helps promote community and connectedness, integral to rehab. It also induces an altered state of consciousness coupled with a rush of energy, created by the repetitive nature of the drumming and chanting, much like the state achieved through the mandala meditation in Krippner’s article. The meditation part of the process promotes deep relaxation and leads to strong emotional release, which is necessary to the rehabilitation process.
The last article reviewed is Krippner’s article on Navajo and Tibetan rituals and the role mandalas play in these ceremonies. Krippner starts by explaining what these rituals are used for. They are used for healing ‘disease’, which is categorized as ‘a malfunctioning of biological and/or psychological processes’ (Krippner 1997). The other thing they heal is ‘illness’, which is defined by Krippner as ‘the psychosocial experience and meaning of the perceived disease’ (1997). He states that these processes heal rather than cure, healing being defined as ‘attaining wholeness or harmony with the community, the cosmos, and one's body, mind, emotions, and/or spirit’ and curing being the act of ‘removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a client to [full] health. Krippner then focuses on two differing mandala meditation ceremonies, that of the Navajo and Tibetan. Both ceremonies involve the construction of a mandala which in the simple Navajo form consist of a circle with a cross in the middle creating the four points of the compass. The Tibetan form is more complex with and eight point lotus design that includes two added points that originate from the practicing healer who is inside the mandala. After entering the mandala the healer begins the meditations and ritualised chanting, which enables those gathered to enter an altered state of consciousness, resulting in the gain of spiritual power. This power is then used in the healing process to re-establish a spiritual status quo by re-ordering both the macrocosm of the universe and subsequently the microcosm reflected in all, be it personal or communal. Krippner acknowledges that while the presentation of these events change depending on cultural context the practices, underlying principles and benefits remain the same. Krippner concludes that in both societies the mandala symbolizes balance and harmony and is an integral part of human society and spiritual development.
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