by Tayce McQuaid
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Although for many years, the west has persecuted Shamans all over the world, it would seem that, in a twist of irony, those who have been persecuting are now desperately reaching out to those indigenous ‘magic-men’ from around the world. In such uncertain times, offering balance in an unstable environment is proving to be increasingly alluring to those who, not long ago were made uneasy by that which they didn’t understand. Could it be that the west is opening her eyes to new possibilities, or is she characteristically grabbing what she wants and destroying centuries old methods in her path? What are the implications of looking at the east through the eyes of the west? This review will look at three articles, with three examples of ‘east meets west’ scenarios in an attempt to make a judgement on this topic.
2.0 SOUND – TRANCE – HEALING – THE SOUND AND PATTERN MEDICINE OF THE SHIPIBO IN THE AMAZON LOWLANDS OF PERU
In this article, Rittner describes the time she spent with the Shipibo tribe of the Amazon. In total, staying with three tribes, she was able to work with ten shamans and participate in their healing rituals as well as interview them. She was interested in the use of ayahuesca in healing along with the use of Icaros (songs used to heal during ayahuesca ceremonies) (Rittner 2007).
2.1 SHIPIBO AYAHUESCA CEREMONIES
The Shipibo tribe, like other South American tribes, use ayahuesca, a hallucinogenic plant to enter an Altered State of Consciousness, however unlike other tribes, the Shipibo embrace the strict idea that only the Shaman himself is to consume the ayahuesca. They believe this is important as the Shaman has control of this altered state of consciousness (la concentración) and can guide himself through the vision and, ultimately, heal the patient. Along with ayahuesca, the Shaman will use Icaros, often specially crafted for the individual, to clean the patient, and remove the dark mist known as the níhue (Rittner 2007).
2.2 SELF-APPOINTED AYAHUESQUEROS
While she was in Peru studying the Shipibo, she came to realise how few Shamans (known to the Shipibo as medicos or ayahuesqueros) were left among the Shipibo with the traditional training. Traditionally the Shipibo were a self-sustained people, surviving off plants – fruit and vegetables they had grown themselves along with fish and meat that they had hunted. But due to the population growth in Peru, these resources became unavailable close to cities, and the Shipibo became entirely dependent on money. The women’s beautiful patterned arts are sold and men are forced to work – one of the best-paid jobs available to them is as a Shaman, and therefore there are many self-appointed Shaman’s practising, especially due to tourist demand (Rittner).
Unlike the traditional Shipibo Shamans, these self-appointed Shamans, aiming to please the western tourists allow their ‘patients’ to experience ayahuesca first hand, often guiding forty people at a time (Rittner).
3.0 COMPLEMENTARY THERAPY FOR ADDICTON : “DRUMMING OUT DRUGS”
In this article, Winkelman discusses a recent interest in western medicine, involving shamanic drumming to treat patients, generally (but not exclusively) recovering drug-addicts with evidence from his own observations of these drumming circles, along with interviews with the directors of the programs (Winkelman 2003).
3.1 ACTIVITIES OF A DRUMMING SESSION
In each programme, the activities each have an emphasis on self expression, but differ slightly in presentation. While Mikenas uses simply the drums, introducing more complex rhythms along the way, Seaman adds chanting and singing activities with the drums, along with call and response activities to connect the group. Eshowsky however involves much more than just singing, with a combination of storytelling, journeying, and healing, dancing and spiritual divination, along with group ceremonies. He teaches others to journey by themself, as well as using shamanic journeying himself to find out information about the patients (their power animals, their spiritual intrusions), which can later be used in rituals with their family. Smith also uses a wide variety of activities in the treatment of his patients, including yoga, breath work, work with music, mask-making and addressing family-dynamics. He also practises soul retrieval, exorcisms and work with power animals, focusing on the idea of ‘re-birthing’ the person (Winkelman 2003).
3.2 EFFECTS OF A DRUMMING SESSION
While the activities of each of these sessions are varied, the effects are incredibly alike. After a drumming session, patients have achieved a sense of calm through an altered state of consciousness and have often achieved insight, allowing them to assess their problems and work through them. There is also an emphasis of feeling ‘at one with the earth’, spiritually awakened or changed (Winkelman 2003).
4.0 HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS AND PLANTS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND SHAMANISM
>> Hybrid Shamanic Therapeutic Rituals
In the article, Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism, Metzner writes about a modern phenomenon in the west, which he describes as, “Hybrid Shamanism” or “Neoshamanism” (Metzner 1998).
In such rituals, the basic elements of the drug-induced Shamanic ritual remain the same, such as the circle structure of the group, an alter and fire in the centre along with low light, music, drumming and an experienced leader or guide. Most of the participants are experienced in some form of shamanic meditation or journeying. The aim of the circles are varied however those with experience in the use of entheogens spend great amounts of time before a ceremony in order to make clear their intentions of the journey, which is followed by a sharing of intentions by those in the group. Following the ritual, often the next morning the group will share their experiences and the outcome of the trance the night before (Metzner 1998).
Metzner explains that many of the westerners who continue with these ceremonies, while not completely disregarding western science and medicine, come to accept the reality of nonmaterial spirits and beings, and the concept that we live in multiple worlds of consciousness (Metzner 1998).
5.0 CONCLUSION
These three articles each discuss a different example of how the west is incorporating eastern concepts into its day to day life. In Peru, westerners are influencing the young men in the Shipibo tribe to allow their unique traditions in order to survive physically. Back in the west, drumming circles are allowing patients who once had no hope for recovery onto that very path and in small groups all over the western world; people are practising their own hybrid versions of shamanic rituals in order to heal. It seems that while the west can certainly benefit from eastern healing traditions, care needs to be taken to make sure ancient traditions live on for the world to enjoy in the future.
6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Metzner, R 1998, ‘Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, viewed 26 March 2009, http://herbarium.0-700.pl/biblioteka/Metzner%20-%20Hallucinogenic%20Plants.pdf
Rittner, S 2007, ‘Sound – Trance – Healing – The Sound and Pattern Medicine of Shipibo in the Amazon Lowlands of Peru’ Music Therapy Today, VIII, viewed 26 March 2009, http://www.musictherapyworld.de/modules/mmmagazine/showarticle.php?articletoshow=209
Winkelman, W 2003, ‘Complementary Therapy for Addiction: “Drumming Out Drugs”’ Journal of Public Health, http://www.public.asu.edu/~atmxw/drumdrugs.pdf
Wednesday, April 1, 2009
Wednesday, October 29, 2008
Treating Mental Illness – Psychology, Psychiatry and Shamanism.
- Ben Muller
The mental health of a person has a powerful effect on their overall wellbeing. An individual may be physically and socially fine; however they may suffer for any number of mental illnesses that keeps them from living a normal and happy life. In Western society, it is reported that more than one in three people will fulfil the criteria for at least one diagnosis of mental illness during their lifetime (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). This suggests that mental illness can be a major difficulty for many people, and does require treatment. In Western society, we visit doctors and mental health specialists such as psychologists and psychiatrists who are qualified to diagnose and treat mental illnesses. Treatment can involve psychotherapy, medication and in some cases, psychosurgery and deep brain stimulation (National Institute of Mental Health, 2006). However, the treatment of mental illnesses is completely different in other cultures, where instead of a psychologist or a psychiatrist, a spiritual leader or a Shaman is responsible for the wellbeing of the members of the community (Eliade, 1964). This essay will explain the practice of mental health experts in Western society, and will further examine the methods used by Shamans in other cultures. Examples of Shamans among the Inuit people as well as Shamans in Siberia and their methods of treatment will be compared to mental health experts in the Western World.
When comparing the definition of a mental health expert in Western society to that of a Shaman in a completely different culture, it can be said that a psychologist or a psychiatrist is the mediator between our minds and our body, whereas a Shaman is a mediator between the community and a spiritual world (Eliade, 1964). A mental health expert is trained to understand the biology and neurochemistry of the brain and how this affects our mental health. They understand how to counsel a person to change their lifestyle to best deal with an illness, or diagnose chemical imbalances that require medication to be resolved. The study of psychology in the Western world is purely scientific, and therefore mental illness is usually dealt with via a purely biomedical approach (Compass & Gotlib, 2002). On the other hand, a Shaman takes a very spiritual and community based approach to treating illnesses. For a Shaman, healing begins by first communicating with the spirit world. A Shaman does this by entering into an altered state of consciousness through a variety of different methods, and will treat illnesses by communicating with the evil spirits responsible (Eliade, 1964). This is a very vague explanation of one of the methods used by Shamans; however, communicating with the spirit world and treating illnesses caused by evil spirits are two fundamental aspects which define a Shaman (Eliade, 1964). It also makes the differences between the methods used by Shamans and mental health experts quite clear for the foundation of this essay.
A Shaman is the leader of a community, as well as the physical and mental healer (Eliade, 1964). The process of healing usually involves the Shaman contacting the spirit world, by entering into an altered state of consciousness. Shamans enter an altered state of consciousness through a variety of methods. In some cultures a Shaman will enter this state through methods similar to common forms of meditation practiced in the Western world, or by ingesting entheogens found in various plants (Hoppál, 2006). Sometimes, a Shaman will enter a trance by stimulating their sympathetic nervous system to extreme levels through activities such as dancing, drumming and sword-fighting (Hoppál, 2006). In the case of Shamans in Siberia, drumming is often the technique used by to enter an altered state of consciousness. Another technique incorporated by these Shaman, is the use of overtone singing and the mimicking of naturally occurring sounds (Siikala, 1978). Overtone singing is commonly referred to as throat-singing and is a distinct sound created by the air being pushed from the lungs through the vocal chords. This is a technique that is almost exclusively used by Shamans from Siberian tribes (Siikala, 1978).
There are in fact, many different ethnic groups in Siberia that practice Shamanism. Their cultures are widely different; however, the techniques the Shamans use are very similar (Siikala, 1978). Once a Shaman enters an altered state of consciousness, they enter a dream like state called a soul journey. Their soul leaves their body to enter the spirit world (Eliade, 1964). The soul journeys experienced by the Shamans of these cultures are all completely different; however they all involve many dangers and challenges that the Shaman must conquer on their way. For example, during a soul journey for a Siberian Shaman of the Oroch people, the Shaman is often turned into a fish by the Sky Deity’s wife, Khadau Mamachani (Avrorin & Kozminskii, 1955). The Shaman must then swim as a fish downstream, towards an ocean, avoiding many dangers on the way, until they reach the ocean itself where the great sky deity, Khadau himself awaits them, only to harpoon the fish, if the soul is not strong enough (Avrorin & Kozminskii. 1955). There are many similar stories which describe the perilous journey a Shaman must take while they are in an altered state of consciousness and it is their bravery, strength and importance, that gives them such a high status in their culture.
A description of a Shaman’s soul journey was published by the Russian historian, Andrei Znamensky (2003). It provides a valuable insight into soul journeys, and is unique in the fact that it provides a detailed description of a Shaman on a soul journey for the purpose of healing a community member’s mental illness. The Shaman is from another Siberian culture, the Altaians, and similarly to the Shaman of the Oroch people, faces many dangers during their soul journey. Once the Shaman has been notified of the community member’s illness, they enter an altered state of consciousness through repeated drumming and the practice of overtone singing (Siikala, 1978). The Shamans goal is to enter the underworld and journey to the residence of the deity, Tehmir-Kahn, who is responsible for the illness. During this soul journey, the Shaman is faced with many dangers such as, slippery narrow bridges suspended over bottomless lakes, tempting spirits of promiscuous women, and animals that prey on the souls of travelling Shaman. It is claimed that an unsuccessful soul journey will result in death of the Shaman’s soul. If the Shaman does reach their destination, they must ask Tehmir-Kahn to relieve the patient from an illness, after which Tehmir-Kahn usually requests a sacrifice in exchange (Karunovskaia, 2005). It can be seen from this description of a soul journey, that similarly to a mental health expert in Western society, the job of a Shaman is very difficult and important. Whether their methods are effective of not is arguable, however it is important to realise that the people of these cultures are very strong believers in pleasing the various Deity’s, to solve negative situations in their lives.
Another culture that practices Shamanism, are the Inuit people. An aspect of Inuit Shamanism that is fairly unique to their culture is the belief in soul dualism (Vitebsky & Piers, 1995). Soul dualism is the idea that a person’s own soul is linked with the soul of a dead person or animal. The person’s own soul is referred to as the “body soul” and the adopted soul is the “free soul”, which can leave the physical body (Hoppál, 1997). Unlike other shamanic cultures where the Shaman’s own soul leaves their body, an Inuit Shaman will often send the free soul on a spirit journey while their body soul remains behind to continue managing the body functions of the Shaman’s physical body (Merkur, 1985).
Inuit people believe that a person has many souls, and that illness is a result of soul-theft (Merkur, 1985). Soul-theft is when an enemy Shaman or an evil spirit has stolen a soul from a person, which results in a corresponding mental illness. Similarly to the soul journeys discussed, an Inuit Shaman will also enter an altered state of consciousness to begin healing. The techniques used by Inuit Shaman to enter an altered state of consciousness are common amongst many cultures. The method usually involves dancing, drumming and chanting. As the Inuit people believe that a soul has been stolen, it is up to the Shaman to enter the spirit world and find the soul, or retrieve the stolen soul from an evil spirit or Shaman that has taken it (Menovščikov,1968). Once again, this can be a dangerous process, as the Shaman may need to engage in battle, or negotiate with an evil spirit to retrieve the lost soul (Merkur, 1985). Sometimes, rather than a soul being stolen, a person may become ill because their body has been invaded by a “dark spirit”. In this case, the Shaman exorcises the evil spirit out of the patient’s body to cure them of their illness (Merkur, 1985).
As it can be seen from these examples of Shamanism, the healing process is completely different to that of a mental health expert in Western Society. Shamans are not only the mediators between the spirit world and community to cure illness, but to find answers to almost any problem faced by the community. Just as a psychologist or a psychiatrist is a very important member of society, the Shaman is even more so, as they are the leaders of their communities. In the two cultures discussed, there was no mention of any sort of medication or life-style changes recommended for the patients, but the Shaman simply cured mental illnesses by creating a harmonious balance with the responsible Deity through a sacrifice, or by retrieving a lost soul to restore mental wellbeing for the patient. It can be said that they believe in a system of balance and harmony, similar to Karma, a cause and effect system where something needs to be restored or sacrificed, or someone needs to be pleased or negotiated with. In conclusion, it is clear that Shamanistic healing is nothing like the treatment a patient would experience in the Western world, however Shamanism is very widely practiced and plays a very large part in many different cultures. The methods may be difficult to comprehend, however to a person part of the community, and especially someone with an illness, the methods used by Shamans could be very comforting for the patient’s wellbeing.
Gazzaniga, M.S., Heatherton, T.F. (2006). ‘Psychological Science’. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, pp: 25.
National Institute of Mental Health. (2006). ‘Information about Mental Illness and the Brain.’ Retrieved October 20, 2008, from http://science- education.nih.gov/supplements/nih5/Mental/guide/info-mental-c.htm
Eliade, M. (1964). ‘Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy’, Bollingen Series LXXVI, Pantheon Books, NYNY, pp: 3-7.
Compass B, Gotlib, I. (2002). ‘Introduction to Clinical Psychology’. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, pp: 74.
Hoppál, M. (2006). ‘Music of Shamanic Healing’. in Gerhard Kilger: Macht Musik. Musik als Glück und Nutzen für das Leben, pp: 141-147.
Siikala, A. L. (1978). ‘The Rite Technique of the Siberian Shaman’. FF Communications 220. Helsinki, pp: 127-129.
Avrorin, Kozminskii. (1955). ‘Shamans Journeys through the Eyes of the Oroch Natives’. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 131-134
Karunovskaia, A. (2005). ‘The Universe as Perceived by the Altaians’. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 151-154
Znamenski, A. (2003). ‘Shamanism in Siberia : Russian Records of Indigenous Spirituality’. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp: 131-278
Menovščikov, G. A. (1968). ‘Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes’, in Diószegi, Vilmos: Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó pp: 243
Vitebsky, P. (1995). ‘The Shaman (Living Wisdom)’. Duncan Baird, London, pp: 175- 246.
Hoppál, M. (1997) ‘Nature Worship in Siberian Shamanism’. Retrieved October 21, 2008, from http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm
Merkur, D. (1985). ‘Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit’. A Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, pp: 208-290.
Monday, September 29, 2008
Satori as an Altered State of Consciousness
Satori as an Altered State of Consciousness
Whilst exploring the locations within the community where altered states of consciousness may be found the Queensland Zen Centre-Dae Kwang Sa, was investigated. It resides at Robertson on the south side of Brisbane. The Abbes at the centre, Zen master Sen Shin, was open and welcoming to the centre. There are two practices held weekly, Sunday mornings and Monday evenings, that are open for individuals who do not live in residence at the centre to attend, anyone from the community is welcome to attend or begin practicing. The group size is not set. An interview was conducted with the Abbes in relation to altered states of consciousness and the practise of Korean Zen Buddhism, and I participated in a number of practises at the same time. Through these avenues the relationship between Zen Buddhism, ritual and altered states of consciousness will be delved into. An account for historical purposes illuminates the importance of ritual and tradition in the transmission of the sacred. The rites, rituals and performance rituals contained within the practise remain the doorway to reaching satori, which is Zen enlightenment. This altered state of consciousness is enquired into.
Bodhidharma was an Indian monk in the fifth century and is known as the patriarch of Zen Buddhism in China (Suzuki, 1960). Within the T'ang Dynasty, the lineage for Zen Buddhism can be traced back to two masters Baso and Sekito. He is renowned for the practise of Pi Kuan "wall meditation" for nine-years. His work lasted approximately 40 years and he records that he lived for 150 years or more. This is where the Ch'an sect within China has its roots (Lanciotti, 1949). One of the legends says that he then travelled to Japan and was found as a beggar by Shotoku Taishi a historical figure within Zen; they then shared poetry (Suzuki, 1960). Within this Korean Zen Buddhist tradition the lineage begins with Bodhidharma. Zen Master Seung Sahn from the international Kwan Um School of Zen founded the Queensland Zen centre-Dae Kwang Sa or "Great Light Temple" in 1969. The historical lineage of the tradition shows a transmission from one generation to the next of a Buddhist practise that bridges the "profane and the sacred" (Van Gennep, 1960. pp.1.) via the rituals and rites of passage.
The precepts are likened to rites and there are 5-500 precepts. They are an underlying moral and ethical code for the benefit of all beings. A Ceremony is held for taking the different precepts. The first precept is: I vow to abstain from taking life, the second precept is: I vow to abstain from taking things not given, the third precept is: I vow to abstain from misconduct done in lust, the fourth precept is: I vow to abstain from lying and the fifth precept is: I vow to abstain from intoxicants, taken to induce heedlessness. The ceremonies include chanting of sutras, chanting of mantras, lighting candles, bowing prostrations and offering incense. A Dharma name is given to the new members along with formal robes and Kasa. The Kasa is a brown piece of fabric that is worn over the top of the robe and represents the robes that the Buddha wore. Ritual is best presented as a performance an individual carries out that is prescribed by the surrounding environment. The environment affords the ritual. Stein & Stein (2008) suggest the interrelationship between myth and ritual resides within the social and cultural mythos to imbibe knowledge, rules, stability and social cohesion. The participation in a ritual expresses acceptance, whilst the repetition of the ritual provides validity and sacredness. The rituals performed within Zen Buddhism are for cultivating a Zen mind in order to relieve suffering and benefit all beings.
The rituals within the practise are numerous. Members of the centre wear robes and Kasa whilst sitting within the Dharma room; visitors and guests wear normal attire. The Dharma room is a sacred place. Upon entering the dharma room all participants are to bow towards the alter at the centre front of the room. Upon the alter are candles, incense, a statue of Buddha, moktak, juk be, candle snuff, offering bowls, flowers and some lotus flowers that contain pictures of people that have recently passed away. A large bell approximately 60-70cm high resides at the left hand side of the alter. It is used for timing chanting. Blue padded mats are placed around the room on the floor equidistant with a round, black, meditation cushion on each. The teachers mat faces the alter. The meditation cushion is a different colour. Each place indicates where different practitioners may sit for example dharma teachers, senior students, the student that plays the moktak and the student that times the meditation practise. Visitors and guests are welcomed and each is given their own mat for practice.
The practice is open to all members of the community and I found the clientele to be culturally diverse. A warm friendly atmosphere pervades the centre and any uncertainties are soon put to rest. The number of practitioners varies on any one night depending on the number of visitors that have arrived at the centre. There can be as few as four. The teacher in residence overseas all formal aspects of Zen training, these include, sitting, walking and bowing meditation, chanting of sutras and koan practise. Once everyone is seated within the Dharma room the practise begins with chanting to the sound of the Moktak, which maintains the timing. Following chanting is an alternation between walking and seated meditation. Upon completion all practitioners complete three bowing prostrations and say together the four great vows: Sentient beings are numberless we vow to save them all, delusions are endless we vow to cut through them all, the teachings are infinite we vow to learn them all, the Buddha way is inconceivable, we vow to attain it. The relationship between the ritual aspects of the practise and altered states of consciousness is best illustrated through an interview with Zen Master Sen Shin.
My first question was: Would you say people who practise Zen Buddhist meditation experience altered states of consciousness? Are altered states of consciousness used within the practise for healing, divination, contacting spirits and so forth? I was asked for a definition of altered states of consciousness and provided a definition of Ordinary wakening states in contrast to altered states of consciousness as described by Tart (1972). Baruss (2003) defines ordinary waking states by describing numerous psychological theories that include, computational theory, the theory of inner perception and behaviour theory these theories were described in relation to the everyday phenomenon of being human. Included in these are fantasy, self- perception, thinking, imagination and daydreaming. In contrast Tart (1972) describes general characteristics of Alterations in consciousness and the ways these are produced. The alterations included: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking. The methods for producing altered states of consciousness included: Reducing or changing sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, heightening sensory input by bombardment, prolonged mental involvement, decreasing alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens.
Sen Shin replied: It is, but it isn't. Zen mind is not dependent on dualistic thinking mind.
With a dualistic mind is time and space, right and wrong. Zen mind does not use filters created by habits, conditioning and memories.
Cutting through dualism.
All beings have Zen mind, it is not limited to anything that is, religion, sex, culture.
Practice is to cultivate a Zen mind for the purpose of benefiting all beings.
Through the practise of Zen the unconscious becomes conscious and that is an altered state.
Vividity is the Zen mind; waking up to the awareness of all things is an altered state.
Use the altered state for the benefit of all beings not for egoistic development.
I asked how does the altered state benefit all beings?
Sen Shin asked: Where does suffering come from?
I replied: From ourselves, as a practitioner I would say my mood states affect others.
Sen Shin replied: Attachment to dualistic thought causes suffering, attachment to the thought I am.
When oneness is experienced there is no more suffering, no this nor that for example, no suffering and no one to experience suffering and no one to impose suffering on others.
When experience of oneself is clear then helping others to experience this is beneficial as well.
On the subject of perceiving Karma past and present, divination, spirits, healing and mind to mind communication. Sen shin stated: Zen is not about developing these things, they are a by-product. Within Zen altered states of consciousness can be used for the benefit of beings as long as there is no ego involved. One needs to be completely open as a conduit; one's personal needs are set aside and dissolve when altered state is engaged.
Suzuki (1996. pp. 83) defines Zen satori as "acquiring a new viewpoint on life". Sen Shin says: In order to understand the subtle mind you need to experience it; it cannot be experienced through a wordy description. The altered state of consciousness within Zen Buddhism called satori is experienced through the practise; however, the aim of the practise is not to induce trance but to intuitively look at the world and oneself (Suzuki, 1996).
The lineage of Zen Buddhism represents how the use of ritual can transcend the everyday. Pathways of ritual have been followed by generations of Zen monks in order to support the spiritual development of the practitioners. Driver (1992) believes the ordering of life generated by ritual extends into many social systems. The perception of the environment through the senses is ritualised via our experiences. The moral, ethical code within the precepts remains and is still pertinent in the present. The openness of the Zen centre provides an avenue for those who are searching within themselves. Reps (1971) has defined Zen practise as self-searching for ones' true nature through meditation with simplicity, self- discipline and leaving out formalism. The ineffable nature of Zen Buddhism is apparent when trying to define Satori. Ken-sho is another word that has been used in place of Satori. It means to "see essence or nature" (Suzuki, 1996. pp. 104) representing a noetic essence. Not all altered states of consciousness are enormous mystical experiences produced with loud repetitive vibrations and sometimes the means is more important than the ends.
Wendy Kay
Bibliography
Baruss, I. (2003). Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Driver, T. F. (1992). The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform our Lives and our Communities. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Lanciotti, L. (1949). New historic contribution to the person of Bodhidharma. Artibus Asiae. 12. 141-145.
Reps, P. (1971). Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. New York: The Penguin Group.
Stein, R. L., & Stein, P. L. (2008). The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1960). Manual of Zen Buddhism. New York: Random House, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1996). Buddhism: Selected Writings of D. T. Suzuki. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Groups, Inc.
Tart, C. T. (1972). Altered States of Consciousness. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Van Gennep, A. (1960). The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Whilst exploring the locations within the community where altered states of consciousness may be found the Queensland Zen Centre-Dae Kwang Sa, was investigated. It resides at Robertson on the south side of Brisbane. The Abbes at the centre, Zen master Sen Shin, was open and welcoming to the centre. There are two practices held weekly, Sunday mornings and Monday evenings, that are open for individuals who do not live in residence at the centre to attend, anyone from the community is welcome to attend or begin practicing. The group size is not set. An interview was conducted with the Abbes in relation to altered states of consciousness and the practise of Korean Zen Buddhism, and I participated in a number of practises at the same time. Through these avenues the relationship between Zen Buddhism, ritual and altered states of consciousness will be delved into. An account for historical purposes illuminates the importance of ritual and tradition in the transmission of the sacred. The rites, rituals and performance rituals contained within the practise remain the doorway to reaching satori, which is Zen enlightenment. This altered state of consciousness is enquired into.
Bodhidharma was an Indian monk in the fifth century and is known as the patriarch of Zen Buddhism in China (Suzuki, 1960). Within the T'ang Dynasty, the lineage for Zen Buddhism can be traced back to two masters Baso and Sekito. He is renowned for the practise of Pi Kuan "wall meditation" for nine-years. His work lasted approximately 40 years and he records that he lived for 150 years or more. This is where the Ch'an sect within China has its roots (Lanciotti, 1949). One of the legends says that he then travelled to Japan and was found as a beggar by Shotoku Taishi a historical figure within Zen; they then shared poetry (Suzuki, 1960). Within this Korean Zen Buddhist tradition the lineage begins with Bodhidharma. Zen Master Seung Sahn from the international Kwan Um School of Zen founded the Queensland Zen centre-Dae Kwang Sa or "Great Light Temple" in 1969. The historical lineage of the tradition shows a transmission from one generation to the next of a Buddhist practise that bridges the "profane and the sacred" (Van Gennep, 1960. pp.1.) via the rituals and rites of passage.
The precepts are likened to rites and there are 5-500 precepts. They are an underlying moral and ethical code for the benefit of all beings. A Ceremony is held for taking the different precepts. The first precept is: I vow to abstain from taking life, the second precept is: I vow to abstain from taking things not given, the third precept is: I vow to abstain from misconduct done in lust, the fourth precept is: I vow to abstain from lying and the fifth precept is: I vow to abstain from intoxicants, taken to induce heedlessness. The ceremonies include chanting of sutras, chanting of mantras, lighting candles, bowing prostrations and offering incense. A Dharma name is given to the new members along with formal robes and Kasa. The Kasa is a brown piece of fabric that is worn over the top of the robe and represents the robes that the Buddha wore. Ritual is best presented as a performance an individual carries out that is prescribed by the surrounding environment. The environment affords the ritual. Stein & Stein (2008) suggest the interrelationship between myth and ritual resides within the social and cultural mythos to imbibe knowledge, rules, stability and social cohesion. The participation in a ritual expresses acceptance, whilst the repetition of the ritual provides validity and sacredness. The rituals performed within Zen Buddhism are for cultivating a Zen mind in order to relieve suffering and benefit all beings.
The rituals within the practise are numerous. Members of the centre wear robes and Kasa whilst sitting within the Dharma room; visitors and guests wear normal attire. The Dharma room is a sacred place. Upon entering the dharma room all participants are to bow towards the alter at the centre front of the room. Upon the alter are candles, incense, a statue of Buddha, moktak, juk be, candle snuff, offering bowls, flowers and some lotus flowers that contain pictures of people that have recently passed away. A large bell approximately 60-70cm high resides at the left hand side of the alter. It is used for timing chanting. Blue padded mats are placed around the room on the floor equidistant with a round, black, meditation cushion on each. The teachers mat faces the alter. The meditation cushion is a different colour. Each place indicates where different practitioners may sit for example dharma teachers, senior students, the student that plays the moktak and the student that times the meditation practise. Visitors and guests are welcomed and each is given their own mat for practice.
The practice is open to all members of the community and I found the clientele to be culturally diverse. A warm friendly atmosphere pervades the centre and any uncertainties are soon put to rest. The number of practitioners varies on any one night depending on the number of visitors that have arrived at the centre. There can be as few as four. The teacher in residence overseas all formal aspects of Zen training, these include, sitting, walking and bowing meditation, chanting of sutras and koan practise. Once everyone is seated within the Dharma room the practise begins with chanting to the sound of the Moktak, which maintains the timing. Following chanting is an alternation between walking and seated meditation. Upon completion all practitioners complete three bowing prostrations and say together the four great vows: Sentient beings are numberless we vow to save them all, delusions are endless we vow to cut through them all, the teachings are infinite we vow to learn them all, the Buddha way is inconceivable, we vow to attain it. The relationship between the ritual aspects of the practise and altered states of consciousness is best illustrated through an interview with Zen Master Sen Shin.
My first question was: Would you say people who practise Zen Buddhist meditation experience altered states of consciousness? Are altered states of consciousness used within the practise for healing, divination, contacting spirits and so forth? I was asked for a definition of altered states of consciousness and provided a definition of Ordinary wakening states in contrast to altered states of consciousness as described by Tart (1972). Baruss (2003) defines ordinary waking states by describing numerous psychological theories that include, computational theory, the theory of inner perception and behaviour theory these theories were described in relation to the everyday phenomenon of being human. Included in these are fantasy, self- perception, thinking, imagination and daydreaming. In contrast Tart (1972) describes general characteristics of Alterations in consciousness and the ways these are produced. The alterations included: Changes to sense of time, fears of losing control, emotional alterations, attribution of meaning to events for example, peak experiences and alterations in thinking. The methods for producing altered states of consciousness included: Reducing or changing sensory input for example sensory deprivation or repetitive stimulation, heightening sensory input by bombardment, prolonged mental involvement, decreasing alertness for example meditative states and finally from alterations in body chemistry for example hallucinogens.
Sen Shin replied: It is, but it isn't. Zen mind is not dependent on dualistic thinking mind.
With a dualistic mind is time and space, right and wrong. Zen mind does not use filters created by habits, conditioning and memories.
Cutting through dualism.
All beings have Zen mind, it is not limited to anything that is, religion, sex, culture.
Practice is to cultivate a Zen mind for the purpose of benefiting all beings.
Through the practise of Zen the unconscious becomes conscious and that is an altered state.
Vividity is the Zen mind; waking up to the awareness of all things is an altered state.
Use the altered state for the benefit of all beings not for egoistic development.
I asked how does the altered state benefit all beings?
Sen Shin asked: Where does suffering come from?
I replied: From ourselves, as a practitioner I would say my mood states affect others.
Sen Shin replied: Attachment to dualistic thought causes suffering, attachment to the thought I am.
When oneness is experienced there is no more suffering, no this nor that for example, no suffering and no one to experience suffering and no one to impose suffering on others.
When experience of oneself is clear then helping others to experience this is beneficial as well.
On the subject of perceiving Karma past and present, divination, spirits, healing and mind to mind communication. Sen shin stated: Zen is not about developing these things, they are a by-product. Within Zen altered states of consciousness can be used for the benefit of beings as long as there is no ego involved. One needs to be completely open as a conduit; one's personal needs are set aside and dissolve when altered state is engaged.
Suzuki (1996. pp. 83) defines Zen satori as "acquiring a new viewpoint on life". Sen Shin says: In order to understand the subtle mind you need to experience it; it cannot be experienced through a wordy description. The altered state of consciousness within Zen Buddhism called satori is experienced through the practise; however, the aim of the practise is not to induce trance but to intuitively look at the world and oneself (Suzuki, 1996).
The lineage of Zen Buddhism represents how the use of ritual can transcend the everyday. Pathways of ritual have been followed by generations of Zen monks in order to support the spiritual development of the practitioners. Driver (1992) believes the ordering of life generated by ritual extends into many social systems. The perception of the environment through the senses is ritualised via our experiences. The moral, ethical code within the precepts remains and is still pertinent in the present. The openness of the Zen centre provides an avenue for those who are searching within themselves. Reps (1971) has defined Zen practise as self-searching for ones' true nature through meditation with simplicity, self- discipline and leaving out formalism. The ineffable nature of Zen Buddhism is apparent when trying to define Satori. Ken-sho is another word that has been used in place of Satori. It means to "see essence or nature" (Suzuki, 1996. pp. 104) representing a noetic essence. Not all altered states of consciousness are enormous mystical experiences produced with loud repetitive vibrations and sometimes the means is more important than the ends.
Wendy Kay
Bibliography
Baruss, I. (2003). Alterations of Consciousness: An Empirical Analysis for Social Scientists. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Driver, T. F. (1992). The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform our Lives and our Communities. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Lanciotti, L. (1949). New historic contribution to the person of Bodhidharma. Artibus Asiae. 12. 141-145.
Reps, P. (1971). Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. New York: The Penguin Group.
Stein, R. L., & Stein, P. L. (2008). The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1960). Manual of Zen Buddhism. New York: Random House, Inc.
Suzuki, D. T. (1996). Buddhism: Selected Writings of D. T. Suzuki. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Groups, Inc.
Tart, C. T. (1972). Altered States of Consciousness. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Van Gennep, A. (1960). The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
The Modern Day Shaman on Advice for Humanity
The Modern Day Shaman on Advice for Humanity
By Abigale Johnson
Shamanism, viewed as a state of mind rather than an institutionalized religion, embraces the love and concern for the self, family, community and environment (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin Johnson, a practicing shamanic healer, has been working with shamanic traditions of various indigenous tribes, particularly the Mexican Huichol and Peruvian Shipibo peoples for the last decade. In an interview with Kevin, he revealed many important aspects of shamanic knowledge, and how it is absolutely vital for the existence of humanity, for this knowledge to be honored and used to bring balance back to the earth. Although Kevin draws on many of the ancient shamanic teachings in his work as a healer, and fills the role of the shaman as he is constantly active in bridging the spiritual and physical worlds, his work is not so formalized as many traditional cultures. There is some controversy among shamanic cultures about spreading the ancient knowledge to outside communities, but Kevin, along with many new and traditional shamans, believe that the movement of the western world back to spiritual awareness and honoring of the gifts of nature is necessary for harmony of the earth (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) As a modern day shaman, Kevin has learned how to connect with the Great Spirit for personal growth, the bettering of the western society, and returning balance to the earth.
Before the shaman begins his life work, he must be called to or inherit it, apprentice in the ancient ways and become initiated as a healer (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin began his shamanic path listening to and following signs that he was to come into great power, spiritual awakening and be given the task of his true life’s work, and which lead him to an introduction to shamanism workshop. There, in his first journey into non-ordinary reality, which shamans consider to be the access into direct communication with the spirit world and big power, Kevin received his call. He was presented with a vision of a bear, buffalo, salmon and a horse, connected by a sacred hoop, and came to understand that it was his life task to keep this hoop alive, continuing the wisdom of shamanic traditions. In this age of continual progression of the western world and increasing dependence on ordinary reality (tonal) and suppression of non-ordinary reality (nagual), sacred knowledge is being lost, and the connections with spirit and the natural way of the world not honored. Shamanic tradition believes in the balance of these realities, and the role of the shaman is to harmonize and blend these energies and keep the flow of natural process (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Rather than coming into some new knowledge, with Kevin’s call to shamanism and subsequent training as a shamanic healer, he felt as though he was being reunited with ways of practice which he’s been living through many lives. In this way, many westerners are in fact feeling a familiarity in the shamanic path, and are drawn to share in the responsibilities of bringing harmony to the earth.
To become a shaman, a person must then go through a process of apprenticeship, ritual and initiation. Although traditional shamanic cultures may have very precise ways this must be done, the purpose of initiations is to prepare the shaman for the dangerous feat of being the mediator between the spirit and physical world for healing (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin’s experience included an informal apprenticeship with two shamans initiated under the Huichol and Shipibo traditions, where he prepared for initiations by building relationships with spirit and natural teachers. This included a 2-year intensive, learning from plant medicine, learning icaros, or sacred songs necessary for Shipibo ceremony, as well as leading and assisting in many ceremonies. After years of preparations, Kevin and his spiritual community were invited by the Shipibo peoples for the 7-day initiation tobacco diet, necessary for the healing methods used by the Shipibo. Through journeying to the nagual, shamans must build relationships with allies from the natural world, both plant and animal, which become guardians for various shamanic processes (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). For the shipibo and many other cultures, tobacco is a protective ally, and necessary for shipibo “extraction” where the shaman sucks out the illness of the patient, a very dangerous process and only possible under the protection of tobacco. The initiation process, varying in form, also includes is the ritual death, where the initiate sheds the old patterns, realities and boundaries of thought in order to come into alignment with true self and spirit (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). This can be in the form of a severe crisis, with years of feeling lost, but for Kevin, the ritual death is something he experiences constantly, as it is a constant shift into enlightenment, and constant breakdown of the limited definitions of self provided by society. He conveys that entering the nagual state of non-ordinary reality is important in this breakdown of barriers, as it breaks down dualistic thinking and allows him to enter an expansive place where his true spiritual identity can stretch its legs.
This purification of the personal essence is also connected to surrendering to the power of spirit and letting go of fear. Kevin relates that the biggest fear to get over is complete surrender, even to death, which he, as shamans in all traditions, must learn to accept (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). We have been imprinted to be in control of everything, and the way of the shaman is to recognize that we’re not, and to trust in spirit to drive the car, even if it’s off a cliff. In this surrendering and letting go of the “personal history” (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) and false perceptions of self, the shaman is able to come into the true self that is one with spirit and everything, and in this frame, lives with endless possibility and power.
As Kevin lives in western society and not in a tribe in the Amazon, where this shamanic knowledge is very much a part of the culture and normal way of being, he faces difficulties blending the two worlds. Shamanic tradition is about using the heart center as the portal to the spirit world, it’s about the power of the nagual, and combining that power with knowledge of the tonal to navigate the spiritual and physical worlds in harmony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). But, western society focuses only on the tonal: knowledge, thinking only with the head, and tries to convert the nagual, the sacred, into ordinary material, available for exploitation. The shaman’s responsibility is to build a sacred bridge between the physical and spirit world, honoring the connection and keeping it in balance, which is done through ceremony (Alderidge D, 2000; Villoldo A, 1987). An example of balancing with ceremony in Kevin’s work is the Andean “despacho” ritual, honoring mother earth, asking forgiveness, and activating energies in the land to bring harmony. Such rituals often take particular forms depending on the individual, but there are also some general aspects used in honoring the spirits and healing. Most rituals begin with calling in and honoring the four directions, sky, earth, and surrounding land and other spirit allies to come and work for the healing of the journeyers and reconnection with the land (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).
The spirits and directions then become a container for the ritual, and Kevin uses them to symbolically move through and guide different parts of the journey. In ceremony, through the use of altered consciousness, achieved through drumming, other music and often medicine plants, the shaman must be highly alert and perceptive, and act both as a vehicle for spirit to do the work, and a conductor, reading the room and directing spirit appropriately, to fit the energies of fellow journeyers and the intentions of the ceremony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). In Kevin’s work with the shipibos, this is done through the singing of icaros, where the shaman leading a ceremony uses the spirit songs to bring forth and shift different energies. Each ceremony must also be closed by thanking and releasing the allies and directions for their guidance through the ceremony and is usually followed by an integration process with the group of journeyers (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).
As the shaman has a foot in both worlds also as a healer, Kevin refers to the shaman as a “hollow reed,” directly connecting spirit and patient. The most important thing is, through entering the nagual, to allow spirit to flow through you, get out of the way and be a vehicle for spirit. As Kevin journeys outside of himself to let spirit flow through, he must ask for protection from his allies, and often uses sage and tobacco to purify and protect himself and the patient from negative energies that might appear in this vulnerable state. After this, similar to many forms of spiritual healing practices, Kevin uses different instruments and techniques, which scan the patient’s body for ailments, and act to direct the healing process (McClean S 2006). In these sessions, both shaman and the patient shift into the nagual, the shaman as the mediator between worlds, and the patient receiving the direct information from spirit to assist in the ultimate healing. Although Kevin and many other shamans or healers may generally use similar techniques and allies for each of their healing sessions, a shamanic healing will never be the same, as the shaman is merely a conductor for spirit, and the detection and work on individual ailments will differ every time (McClean S 2006). Although Kevin does individual healing sessions, he also believes that there is great power in working together as a community in ritual, as the ultimate goal of shamanism is to regain balance and recognize the connection of all that is spirit through collective experience.
Community and the responsibilities of a shaman to his community are very important, and Kevin considers himself part of what he calls a global community/tribe of people sharing a common quest for pure consciousness. He and other healers in his area hold by donation healing circles weekly as well as individual consultation, holding true to his responsibility to protect the sacred hoop and support others in their path to the one. He, as well as shamans all over the world (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987), holds a responsibility as a steward of the earth, again as a sacred bridge between heaven (or spirit world) and earth. The shamanic perspective, recognizing the connection of all that is, is vital for the survival of humans on earth as we must reconnect with and honor the earth and all that it has given us. The shaman uses the non-ordinary reality, the nagual, to see this connection (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987); Kevin has seen it as a sacred tree, beating with the heart of all in the universe, recognizing the flow of spirit through all that exists. To become a bearer of light, be connected, walk with consciousness, and live in harmonic relationship with the world is a lesson that humanity as a whole is called upon to honor.
References
Thanks to Kevin Johnson for sharing his experiences and wisdom.
Aldridge, D. (2000). Spirituality, Healing and Medicine: Return to the Silence. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London: pg 178-179.
McClean, S. (2006). An Ethnography of Crystal and Spiritual Healers in Northern England. The Edwin Mellen Press Ltd., New York: pg 155-164.
Villoldo, A and Krippner, S (1987). Healing States. Simon and Schuster Inc., New York: Ch2, all of Part II.
By Abigale Johnson
Shamanism, viewed as a state of mind rather than an institutionalized religion, embraces the love and concern for the self, family, community and environment (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin Johnson, a practicing shamanic healer, has been working with shamanic traditions of various indigenous tribes, particularly the Mexican Huichol and Peruvian Shipibo peoples for the last decade. In an interview with Kevin, he revealed many important aspects of shamanic knowledge, and how it is absolutely vital for the existence of humanity, for this knowledge to be honored and used to bring balance back to the earth. Although Kevin draws on many of the ancient shamanic teachings in his work as a healer, and fills the role of the shaman as he is constantly active in bridging the spiritual and physical worlds, his work is not so formalized as many traditional cultures. There is some controversy among shamanic cultures about spreading the ancient knowledge to outside communities, but Kevin, along with many new and traditional shamans, believe that the movement of the western world back to spiritual awareness and honoring of the gifts of nature is necessary for harmony of the earth (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) As a modern day shaman, Kevin has learned how to connect with the Great Spirit for personal growth, the bettering of the western society, and returning balance to the earth.
Before the shaman begins his life work, he must be called to or inherit it, apprentice in the ancient ways and become initiated as a healer (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin began his shamanic path listening to and following signs that he was to come into great power, spiritual awakening and be given the task of his true life’s work, and which lead him to an introduction to shamanism workshop. There, in his first journey into non-ordinary reality, which shamans consider to be the access into direct communication with the spirit world and big power, Kevin received his call. He was presented with a vision of a bear, buffalo, salmon and a horse, connected by a sacred hoop, and came to understand that it was his life task to keep this hoop alive, continuing the wisdom of shamanic traditions. In this age of continual progression of the western world and increasing dependence on ordinary reality (tonal) and suppression of non-ordinary reality (nagual), sacred knowledge is being lost, and the connections with spirit and the natural way of the world not honored. Shamanic tradition believes in the balance of these realities, and the role of the shaman is to harmonize and blend these energies and keep the flow of natural process (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Rather than coming into some new knowledge, with Kevin’s call to shamanism and subsequent training as a shamanic healer, he felt as though he was being reunited with ways of practice which he’s been living through many lives. In this way, many westerners are in fact feeling a familiarity in the shamanic path, and are drawn to share in the responsibilities of bringing harmony to the earth.
To become a shaman, a person must then go through a process of apprenticeship, ritual and initiation. Although traditional shamanic cultures may have very precise ways this must be done, the purpose of initiations is to prepare the shaman for the dangerous feat of being the mediator between the spirit and physical world for healing (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). Kevin’s experience included an informal apprenticeship with two shamans initiated under the Huichol and Shipibo traditions, where he prepared for initiations by building relationships with spirit and natural teachers. This included a 2-year intensive, learning from plant medicine, learning icaros, or sacred songs necessary for Shipibo ceremony, as well as leading and assisting in many ceremonies. After years of preparations, Kevin and his spiritual community were invited by the Shipibo peoples for the 7-day initiation tobacco diet, necessary for the healing methods used by the Shipibo. Through journeying to the nagual, shamans must build relationships with allies from the natural world, both plant and animal, which become guardians for various shamanic processes (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). For the shipibo and many other cultures, tobacco is a protective ally, and necessary for shipibo “extraction” where the shaman sucks out the illness of the patient, a very dangerous process and only possible under the protection of tobacco. The initiation process, varying in form, also includes is the ritual death, where the initiate sheds the old patterns, realities and boundaries of thought in order to come into alignment with true self and spirit (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). This can be in the form of a severe crisis, with years of feeling lost, but for Kevin, the ritual death is something he experiences constantly, as it is a constant shift into enlightenment, and constant breakdown of the limited definitions of self provided by society. He conveys that entering the nagual state of non-ordinary reality is important in this breakdown of barriers, as it breaks down dualistic thinking and allows him to enter an expansive place where his true spiritual identity can stretch its legs.
This purification of the personal essence is also connected to surrendering to the power of spirit and letting go of fear. Kevin relates that the biggest fear to get over is complete surrender, even to death, which he, as shamans in all traditions, must learn to accept (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). We have been imprinted to be in control of everything, and the way of the shaman is to recognize that we’re not, and to trust in spirit to drive the car, even if it’s off a cliff. In this surrendering and letting go of the “personal history” (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987) and false perceptions of self, the shaman is able to come into the true self that is one with spirit and everything, and in this frame, lives with endless possibility and power.
As Kevin lives in western society and not in a tribe in the Amazon, where this shamanic knowledge is very much a part of the culture and normal way of being, he faces difficulties blending the two worlds. Shamanic tradition is about using the heart center as the portal to the spirit world, it’s about the power of the nagual, and combining that power with knowledge of the tonal to navigate the spiritual and physical worlds in harmony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). But, western society focuses only on the tonal: knowledge, thinking only with the head, and tries to convert the nagual, the sacred, into ordinary material, available for exploitation. The shaman’s responsibility is to build a sacred bridge between the physical and spirit world, honoring the connection and keeping it in balance, which is done through ceremony (Alderidge D, 2000; Villoldo A, 1987). An example of balancing with ceremony in Kevin’s work is the Andean “despacho” ritual, honoring mother earth, asking forgiveness, and activating energies in the land to bring harmony. Such rituals often take particular forms depending on the individual, but there are also some general aspects used in honoring the spirits and healing. Most rituals begin with calling in and honoring the four directions, sky, earth, and surrounding land and other spirit allies to come and work for the healing of the journeyers and reconnection with the land (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).
The spirits and directions then become a container for the ritual, and Kevin uses them to symbolically move through and guide different parts of the journey. In ceremony, through the use of altered consciousness, achieved through drumming, other music and often medicine plants, the shaman must be highly alert and perceptive, and act both as a vehicle for spirit to do the work, and a conductor, reading the room and directing spirit appropriately, to fit the energies of fellow journeyers and the intentions of the ceremony (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987). In Kevin’s work with the shipibos, this is done through the singing of icaros, where the shaman leading a ceremony uses the spirit songs to bring forth and shift different energies. Each ceremony must also be closed by thanking and releasing the allies and directions for their guidance through the ceremony and is usually followed by an integration process with the group of journeyers (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987).
As the shaman has a foot in both worlds also as a healer, Kevin refers to the shaman as a “hollow reed,” directly connecting spirit and patient. The most important thing is, through entering the nagual, to allow spirit to flow through you, get out of the way and be a vehicle for spirit. As Kevin journeys outside of himself to let spirit flow through, he must ask for protection from his allies, and often uses sage and tobacco to purify and protect himself and the patient from negative energies that might appear in this vulnerable state. After this, similar to many forms of spiritual healing practices, Kevin uses different instruments and techniques, which scan the patient’s body for ailments, and act to direct the healing process (McClean S 2006). In these sessions, both shaman and the patient shift into the nagual, the shaman as the mediator between worlds, and the patient receiving the direct information from spirit to assist in the ultimate healing. Although Kevin and many other shamans or healers may generally use similar techniques and allies for each of their healing sessions, a shamanic healing will never be the same, as the shaman is merely a conductor for spirit, and the detection and work on individual ailments will differ every time (McClean S 2006). Although Kevin does individual healing sessions, he also believes that there is great power in working together as a community in ritual, as the ultimate goal of shamanism is to regain balance and recognize the connection of all that is spirit through collective experience.
Community and the responsibilities of a shaman to his community are very important, and Kevin considers himself part of what he calls a global community/tribe of people sharing a common quest for pure consciousness. He and other healers in his area hold by donation healing circles weekly as well as individual consultation, holding true to his responsibility to protect the sacred hoop and support others in their path to the one. He, as well as shamans all over the world (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987), holds a responsibility as a steward of the earth, again as a sacred bridge between heaven (or spirit world) and earth. The shamanic perspective, recognizing the connection of all that is, is vital for the survival of humans on earth as we must reconnect with and honor the earth and all that it has given us. The shaman uses the non-ordinary reality, the nagual, to see this connection (Villoldo A & Krippner S, 1987); Kevin has seen it as a sacred tree, beating with the heart of all in the universe, recognizing the flow of spirit through all that exists. To become a bearer of light, be connected, walk with consciousness, and live in harmonic relationship with the world is a lesson that humanity as a whole is called upon to honor.
References
Thanks to Kevin Johnson for sharing his experiences and wisdom.
Aldridge, D. (2000). Spirituality, Healing and Medicine: Return to the Silence. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London: pg 178-179.
McClean, S. (2006). An Ethnography of Crystal and Spiritual Healers in Northern England. The Edwin Mellen Press Ltd., New York: pg 155-164.
Villoldo, A and Krippner, S (1987). Healing States. Simon and Schuster Inc., New York: Ch2, all of Part II.
Sunday, September 28, 2008
trance and childbirth
This paper will focus on the relationship between trance and non pharmacological childbirth. I will draw on both academic literature and my personal experiences of birthing throughout this essay. First I will locate my experiences of childbirth. A brief outline of some physiological and psychological processes that occur to a woman during childbirth will provide insight into the ways in which altered states of consciousness (ASC), come into being. The various supportive options a woman may utilise during child birth and their relationship to trance will then be examined. Finally the possible meanings ascribed to the ritual dance created by the journey of childbirth, will be underlined.
I birthed my two daughters without drugs, and on invitation have fulfilled a supportive role on ten occasions for birthing members of my community and their partners. Some of the women chose pharmacological pain relief and others did not. Each journey was unique and this paper aims to draw on both exogenous and endogenous strategies which may be employed by women for the purposes of pain management during birth. The birth sites I have visited were at various locations in Brisbane; residential addresses, private hospitals, birth centres and public hospitals. Also present at various stages of these births were other support people and medical staff, including midwives and obstetricians of diverse ages, gender and ethnicity.
Many women begin preparation for childbirth during pregnancy and may obtain information from a plethora of sources such as, books, certain members of their community, medical staff and pregnancy/birth classes (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996; Maher, 2008). It is here that a woman may become aware of the many physiological changes that occur during childbirth that effect the uterus, cervix, bladder, urethra, pelvic structure, skeletal system, perineum, lumbar sacral region and more (Lowe, 1996). Lowe (1996) confirms that the psychological perception of acute pain arises in response to the transference of sensory input via the physiological stresses outlined above, to the central nervous system. Winkleman (1997) asserts that both distressing sensory stimulation and severe pain may induce an ASC. He concludes that ASC works to decrease the sympathetic response from the nervous system and aid in relaxation of the mind and body. This paper argues that a woman’s psychological and physiological responses to acute pain, and the strategies utilised for pain management during childbirth, may be drivers that are intrinsic to the maintenance of trance within the birthing experience (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996).
I discovered during the early stages of birthing that my pain was alleviated by the rhythmic and circular rotation of my hips. As I felt each contraction build, I turned my awareness to my breath and focused my attention here. While the momentum of each contraction reached its crescendo and subsided, I consciously brought my focus back to the breath. I have a deep affinity with the ocean and felt the physiological experience of each contraction was comparable to the ebb, peak and flow of a wave, this became my visual imagery. Winkleman (1997) confirms that motor movement, breathing and visualisation techniques such as those outlined above, act as drivers for ASC. I continued to combine the above practices for many hours as the onset of each wave threatened to engulf me. At some times between contractions, I was aware of my body trembling but recall having no concept of time. The relevant birthing literature asserts that women often report losing their sense of temporal reality and memory during birthing (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Maher, 2008). Schechner (2007) includes loss of memory and time, and the presentation of certain bodily behaviours such as shaking and trembling, as characteristic features of trance. Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that trance may act as a safety mechanism during childbirth, by creating projectable distance between the ‘body in labour’, and other embodied perceptions of the self.
I cannot only credit my own body and mind in enabling me to cope with the sensations of acute pain that I experienced during childbirth. Support people play a vital role in maintaining the ritual created in order to achieve an ASC (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996). My support people aided the relaxation of my sympathetic nervous system by massaging me, applying heat and cold packs to my body, ensuring the music I had selected continued its song, topping up the oil burner, nourishing me with food and water and ensuring all my external needs were met. This afforded me the opportunity of minimal distractions, allowing me to turn my attention meditatively inwards. Akrich and Pasveer (2004) argue that a support person should act on intuitive responses at a birth and should become in effect, an extension of the birthing woman. If acute pain becomes the predominant focus of the woman’s consciousness, Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that it is the essential role of the support person to ‘bring’ the woman back to the processes she has employed to maintain an ASC.
Effective support people provide affirmation, nurturance and a sense of security to the birthing woman, allowing her to ‘go with the flow’; finding and acting on her own rhythms in accordance with her individual needs (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004). Any deviation from, or interruption to, the ritual dance created throughout childbirth would seem inconceivable. Yet I have experienced this on several occasions within the hospital environment. Medical staff have entered a quiet and dimly lit birthing room, abruptly turned up the lights and started talking in inappropriately loud and abrasive voices, thus shattering the rarefied and sacrosanct space that has been carefully constructed, and maintained by all active members of the birth journey. Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir (1996) underpin the possibility of a challenge for authority, over the course of the birth journey, that may be presented by medical staff (see also Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Maher, 2008).
A gamut of emotions and feelings such as anxiety, exhaustion, anticipation and fear, are felt during the journey of childbirth. This culminates in a sense of pride, wonder and awe, at the therapeutic use of consciousness, and the arrival of a unique spirit child into the world. The ritual of childbirth is a rite of passage that transforms the woman, to the mother (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). This voyage of discovery may uncover new ‘ways of knowing’ the world, for all members of this ritual journey (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). Winkleman (1997) confirms that during an ASC the self may be transformed and transcended. I have experienced the dissolution of ego and attachment during childbirth which has left me with the transformative gift of selflessness; a ‘way of knowing’ that I would argue is vital for the role of a mother. Gibson and Oths (2007) attest that by travelling down the path of birthing, an individual may experience a heightened sense of spirituality. Maslow (1976) argues that peak life experiences provide an individual with a focus to which they can aspire and also involves the surrender and transcendence of ‘self’. This paper has underlined some of the ways in which the journey of childbirth may meet his conceptual framework for peak experiences.
Pain during childbirth is not something to be feared but a power to be harnessed. It is a portal that allows entry and exploration into the inner depths of consciousness. A means for uncovering new dimensions of the self, that lie dormant, waiting to be aroused. I have been honoured to be included in twelve birth journeys and am waiting to be called on again. My friends and I will welcome a new consciousness into this world within the next month. The swell and currents of this child gently stir my friend’s waters, creating ripples that will crescendo into relentlessly crashing waves. We will swim again soon to a new shore and bask in the sun, as we lovingly share the insight we have gained into new ways of knowing, and meanings, that we never had before.
REFERENCES CITED
Alrich, M., & Pasveer, B. (2004). Embodiment and disembodiment in childbirth narratives. Body and society, 10(2-3), 63-84.
Gibson, E., & Oths, K. (2007). Blessed events: religion and home births in America. Medical anthropology quarterly, 21(1), 242-243.
Halldorsdottir, S., & Karlsdottir, S. (1996). Journeying through labour and delivery: Perception of women who have given birth. Midwifery, 12(1), 48-61.
Lowe, N. (1996). The pain and discomfort of labour and birth. Journal of obstetric, gynaecologic and neonatal nursing, 25(1), 82-92.
Maher, J. (2008). Progressing through labour and delivery: Birth time and women’s experiences. Women’s studies international forum, 31(2), 129-137.
Maslow, A. (1976). Religions, values and peak-experiences. Middlesex: Penguin.
Schechner, R. (2007). Living a double consciousness. In C. Bell (Ed.). Teaching ritual (pp.15-28). Retrieved September 6, 2008 from Oxford Scholarship online.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp.393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.
I birthed my two daughters without drugs, and on invitation have fulfilled a supportive role on ten occasions for birthing members of my community and their partners. Some of the women chose pharmacological pain relief and others did not. Each journey was unique and this paper aims to draw on both exogenous and endogenous strategies which may be employed by women for the purposes of pain management during birth. The birth sites I have visited were at various locations in Brisbane; residential addresses, private hospitals, birth centres and public hospitals. Also present at various stages of these births were other support people and medical staff, including midwives and obstetricians of diverse ages, gender and ethnicity.
Many women begin preparation for childbirth during pregnancy and may obtain information from a plethora of sources such as, books, certain members of their community, medical staff and pregnancy/birth classes (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996; Maher, 2008). It is here that a woman may become aware of the many physiological changes that occur during childbirth that effect the uterus, cervix, bladder, urethra, pelvic structure, skeletal system, perineum, lumbar sacral region and more (Lowe, 1996). Lowe (1996) confirms that the psychological perception of acute pain arises in response to the transference of sensory input via the physiological stresses outlined above, to the central nervous system. Winkleman (1997) asserts that both distressing sensory stimulation and severe pain may induce an ASC. He concludes that ASC works to decrease the sympathetic response from the nervous system and aid in relaxation of the mind and body. This paper argues that a woman’s psychological and physiological responses to acute pain, and the strategies utilised for pain management during childbirth, may be drivers that are intrinsic to the maintenance of trance within the birthing experience (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996).
I discovered during the early stages of birthing that my pain was alleviated by the rhythmic and circular rotation of my hips. As I felt each contraction build, I turned my awareness to my breath and focused my attention here. While the momentum of each contraction reached its crescendo and subsided, I consciously brought my focus back to the breath. I have a deep affinity with the ocean and felt the physiological experience of each contraction was comparable to the ebb, peak and flow of a wave, this became my visual imagery. Winkleman (1997) confirms that motor movement, breathing and visualisation techniques such as those outlined above, act as drivers for ASC. I continued to combine the above practices for many hours as the onset of each wave threatened to engulf me. At some times between contractions, I was aware of my body trembling but recall having no concept of time. The relevant birthing literature asserts that women often report losing their sense of temporal reality and memory during birthing (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Maher, 2008). Schechner (2007) includes loss of memory and time, and the presentation of certain bodily behaviours such as shaking and trembling, as characteristic features of trance. Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that trance may act as a safety mechanism during childbirth, by creating projectable distance between the ‘body in labour’, and other embodied perceptions of the self.
I cannot only credit my own body and mind in enabling me to cope with the sensations of acute pain that I experienced during childbirth. Support people play a vital role in maintaining the ritual created in order to achieve an ASC (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Lowe, 1996). My support people aided the relaxation of my sympathetic nervous system by massaging me, applying heat and cold packs to my body, ensuring the music I had selected continued its song, topping up the oil burner, nourishing me with food and water and ensuring all my external needs were met. This afforded me the opportunity of minimal distractions, allowing me to turn my attention meditatively inwards. Akrich and Pasveer (2004) argue that a support person should act on intuitive responses at a birth and should become in effect, an extension of the birthing woman. If acute pain becomes the predominant focus of the woman’s consciousness, Akrich & Pasveer (2004) argue that it is the essential role of the support person to ‘bring’ the woman back to the processes she has employed to maintain an ASC.
Effective support people provide affirmation, nurturance and a sense of security to the birthing woman, allowing her to ‘go with the flow’; finding and acting on her own rhythms in accordance with her individual needs (Akrich & Pasveer, 2004). Any deviation from, or interruption to, the ritual dance created throughout childbirth would seem inconceivable. Yet I have experienced this on several occasions within the hospital environment. Medical staff have entered a quiet and dimly lit birthing room, abruptly turned up the lights and started talking in inappropriately loud and abrasive voices, thus shattering the rarefied and sacrosanct space that has been carefully constructed, and maintained by all active members of the birth journey. Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir (1996) underpin the possibility of a challenge for authority, over the course of the birth journey, that may be presented by medical staff (see also Akrich & Pasveer, 2004; Maher, 2008).
A gamut of emotions and feelings such as anxiety, exhaustion, anticipation and fear, are felt during the journey of childbirth. This culminates in a sense of pride, wonder and awe, at the therapeutic use of consciousness, and the arrival of a unique spirit child into the world. The ritual of childbirth is a rite of passage that transforms the woman, to the mother (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). This voyage of discovery may uncover new ‘ways of knowing’ the world, for all members of this ritual journey (Halldorsdottir & Karlsdottir, 1996; Schechner, 2007). Winkleman (1997) confirms that during an ASC the self may be transformed and transcended. I have experienced the dissolution of ego and attachment during childbirth which has left me with the transformative gift of selflessness; a ‘way of knowing’ that I would argue is vital for the role of a mother. Gibson and Oths (2007) attest that by travelling down the path of birthing, an individual may experience a heightened sense of spirituality. Maslow (1976) argues that peak life experiences provide an individual with a focus to which they can aspire and also involves the surrender and transcendence of ‘self’. This paper has underlined some of the ways in which the journey of childbirth may meet his conceptual framework for peak experiences.
Pain during childbirth is not something to be feared but a power to be harnessed. It is a portal that allows entry and exploration into the inner depths of consciousness. A means for uncovering new dimensions of the self, that lie dormant, waiting to be aroused. I have been honoured to be included in twelve birth journeys and am waiting to be called on again. My friends and I will welcome a new consciousness into this world within the next month. The swell and currents of this child gently stir my friend’s waters, creating ripples that will crescendo into relentlessly crashing waves. We will swim again soon to a new shore and bask in the sun, as we lovingly share the insight we have gained into new ways of knowing, and meanings, that we never had before.
REFERENCES CITED
Alrich, M., & Pasveer, B. (2004). Embodiment and disembodiment in childbirth narratives. Body and society, 10(2-3), 63-84.
Gibson, E., & Oths, K. (2007). Blessed events: religion and home births in America. Medical anthropology quarterly, 21(1), 242-243.
Halldorsdottir, S., & Karlsdottir, S. (1996). Journeying through labour and delivery: Perception of women who have given birth. Midwifery, 12(1), 48-61.
Lowe, N. (1996). The pain and discomfort of labour and birth. Journal of obstetric, gynaecologic and neonatal nursing, 25(1), 82-92.
Maher, J. (2008). Progressing through labour and delivery: Birth time and women’s experiences. Women’s studies international forum, 31(2), 129-137.
Maslow, A. (1976). Religions, values and peak-experiences. Middlesex: Penguin.
Schechner, R. (2007). Living a double consciousness. In C. Bell (Ed.). Teaching ritual (pp.15-28). Retrieved September 6, 2008 from Oxford Scholarship online.
Winkleman, M. (1997). Altered states of consciousness and religious behaviour. In S. Glazier (Ed.), Anthropology of religion: A handbook (pp.393-428). Westport: Greenwood Press.
Wednesday, September 24, 2008
Terence Mckenna, Neo-Shaman
By Aaron Schafer
Terence McKenna was a student of shamanism and consequently played a shamanic role in his use of trance states to procure knowledge that he spread to others. McKenna’s dedication to shamanism is evident in his books and speeches although some of his views go beyond certain widely held themes in academic literature on the topic. McKenna’s empiricist approach to knowledge acquisition is reflected in this literature and its theoretical content challenges the very foundations of contemporary western society. He documented a number of instances in which he consumed “Psychedelic plants”, as a shamanic tool and brought back knowledge that he believed was otherworldly as opposed to literature which suggests that such knowledge is most likely culturally learned. He played the role of teacher in his theories about human evolution and the plight of western civilization which is further evidence that he was a shamanic guide in a wider social sense.
Shamanism is a spirituality that stems from the experience of altered states of consciousness instead of the deductive reasoning of religious dogma. In this sense, shamanism is in opposition to western spirituality in which beliefs precede religious experiences whereas those in trance states develop religiousness from the experiences themselves (Wooten 2007). McKenna stated that breaking down this learned religious culture and other such boundaries is an affect of the psychedelic plants that he used to achieve altered states. These boundaries are said to be undesirable qualities and it is McKenna’s belief that it is the shamans, (and notably his own) role to show people that they can be overcome in order to save the world. According to McKenna, a shaman is one who has traversed this limitless landscape and therefore who understands the way the world works (Mckenna 1993).
McKenna’s views on shamanism mirror that of academic research in some respects but in other instances he seeks to move beyond this generic structure. McKenna believes that psychoactive compounds unlock a state of being that is beyond the confines of mind/body and other such restrictive dualisms within physical reality. He experimented with LSD, Psylocibin Mushrooms, DMT and Ayauasca with the conscious intent to replicate shamanistic methods of knowledge acquisition (Mckenna 1999). His preferred method of altered state inducement was these tryptamines because of the intensity of hallucination they induced. Academic literature confirms the use of such altered states as a valid method to make contact with a spirit world and that this non-ordinary, non-dual reality contains information about the universe (Noll 1985).
McKenna differs from certain academic literature in his belief that shamans are not merely experiencing and reciting reflections of learned cultural knowledge. Instead, they are tapping into a source of wisdom that is beyond that of ordinary reality by experiencing aspects of the universe that are deeper and more profound than the understandings of humans that are limited by physically perceivable reality. This is in opposition to the idea that shamanic visionary insights are merely a repetition of wisdom that has been passed down through generations by the cultural group and is experienced emphatically in trance states that are simply a subconscious affirmation of externally learned ideas (Noll 1985). Mckenna, and the shamanic cultures he replicates, believe that they are traversing other planes of existence and although they deny that their journeys are subjective they affirm that the knowledge they bring back can be applied and communicated to their cultural group.
Luke supports McKenna’s suggestion that trance states can reveal experiences that do not have obvious cultural links for the individual. In a study of mystical experiences in trance states it was reported that a variety of visions containing seemingly random creatures and objects similar in their peculiarity to those described by McKenna were experienced. These creatures could not be attributed to any obvious cultural link for the people involved much like the machine elves reported by Mckenna. These random beings acted as guides and purveyors of knowledge and were separate from any traceable cultural source (Luke 2006).
Mckenna played the role of a teacher in the books he wrote about these experiences in which he vividly described the visions themselves. Academic literature does not frequently portray descriptively the occurrences in trance states. Most evidence is purely anecdotal as is the case with Mckenna’s descriptions which he himself readily admitted were inadmissible scientifically. He proclaimed that his field of research was beyond the ability of science to record at any length. He also developed unique theories about the plight of western civilisation including an apex of evolution which he believed would occur in the year 2012.
One of the primary roles of the shaman is to develop a relationship with people by bringing back information from this other world to share with them (Wooten 2007). McKenna did so within his theories and his warnings as to the plight of western civilisation. In a shamanic sense McKenna’s spiritual students were members of western culture that sympathised with his rejection of its methodology. Some of the issues that McKenna mentioned frequently in his teachings include; The need to move beyond an unchallenged dominant culture that has reigned supreme for thousands of years; The suppression of the ego to defeat the proliferation of the dominators and materialists within modern culture; A renewed focus on immediate experience as opposed to living in the glories of the past or desires of the future, and, the importance of the self in its ability to achieve states of consciousness that he considers to be more profound and significant than exploring the outer regions of physical space. There is also a denial that science should be the only approved method of obtaining valid knowledge (Mckenna 1992, 1993, 1999). Science may be just another culturally specific phenomenon that is superseded in the near future. Such social commentary is a common element within neo-shamanism according to a study of experienced neo-shamans (Burkett 2005). To travel to another dimension and return with an ominous warning and proposed methods of action is central to shamanic practise and widely evident in McKenna’s writings and experiences.
Mckenna’s life work was essentially to present an antithesis to the popularised reality construct associated with western society. He did so by connecting with the reality construct of shamanistic cultures that taught him practical methods for obtaining knowledge through trance states. He played the role of a pioneer by seeking methods of interpreting reality that are beyond the scope of science. Mckenna employed a method that was used in the past in a smaller cultural or tribal setting and applied it in a wider social sense. This correlates with the idea that the shamans visions are applicable to a cultural context with appropriate spirits and knowledge being relayed back to the people. Mckenna’s cultural context or tribe was contemporary western society and the knowledge he brought back and conveyed contained information that was relevant to this wider social group. This may also suggest that the kind of knowledge obtainable in forays to the spirit world is universally true, a kind of over-arching wisdom. It has been applied in unrelated nomadic cultures across the world for thousands of years and can also be applied to the complexities of a massive global society which is reflected in the comparative complexity of the knowledge put forward by Mckenna.
References
Burkett, T. (2005). “A Psychological Inquiry into Neoshamanic Practise”, Revision, vol. 27 no. 3. pp. 3-7.
Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.
Luke, D & Kittenis, M. (2006). “A Preliminary Survey of Paranormal Experiences with Psychoactive Drugs”, The Journal of Parapsychology, pp. 305-327.
Mckenna, T. (1999). “Food of the Gods”, Bantam New Age Books.
Mckenna, T. (1993). “The Invisible Landscape”, Harper Collins, New York.
Mckenna, T. (1992). “Tryptamine Hallucinogens and Consciousness”, Harper Collins, San Francisco.
Noll, R. (1985) “Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism”, Current Anthropology, vol 26. No. 4. pp. 443-461.
Wooten, R. (2007). “The Shamanic Journey: Tapping the Spiritual Wisdom Within”, Journal of Heart-Centred Therapies, vol. 10. no. 1. pp. 3-8.
Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.
Terence McKenna was a student of shamanism and consequently played a shamanic role in his use of trance states to procure knowledge that he spread to others. McKenna’s dedication to shamanism is evident in his books and speeches although some of his views go beyond certain widely held themes in academic literature on the topic. McKenna’s empiricist approach to knowledge acquisition is reflected in this literature and its theoretical content challenges the very foundations of contemporary western society. He documented a number of instances in which he consumed “Psychedelic plants”, as a shamanic tool and brought back knowledge that he believed was otherworldly as opposed to literature which suggests that such knowledge is most likely culturally learned. He played the role of teacher in his theories about human evolution and the plight of western civilization which is further evidence that he was a shamanic guide in a wider social sense.
Shamanism is a spirituality that stems from the experience of altered states of consciousness instead of the deductive reasoning of religious dogma. In this sense, shamanism is in opposition to western spirituality in which beliefs precede religious experiences whereas those in trance states develop religiousness from the experiences themselves (Wooten 2007). McKenna stated that breaking down this learned religious culture and other such boundaries is an affect of the psychedelic plants that he used to achieve altered states. These boundaries are said to be undesirable qualities and it is McKenna’s belief that it is the shamans, (and notably his own) role to show people that they can be overcome in order to save the world. According to McKenna, a shaman is one who has traversed this limitless landscape and therefore who understands the way the world works (Mckenna 1993).
McKenna’s views on shamanism mirror that of academic research in some respects but in other instances he seeks to move beyond this generic structure. McKenna believes that psychoactive compounds unlock a state of being that is beyond the confines of mind/body and other such restrictive dualisms within physical reality. He experimented with LSD, Psylocibin Mushrooms, DMT and Ayauasca with the conscious intent to replicate shamanistic methods of knowledge acquisition (Mckenna 1999). His preferred method of altered state inducement was these tryptamines because of the intensity of hallucination they induced. Academic literature confirms the use of such altered states as a valid method to make contact with a spirit world and that this non-ordinary, non-dual reality contains information about the universe (Noll 1985).
McKenna differs from certain academic literature in his belief that shamans are not merely experiencing and reciting reflections of learned cultural knowledge. Instead, they are tapping into a source of wisdom that is beyond that of ordinary reality by experiencing aspects of the universe that are deeper and more profound than the understandings of humans that are limited by physically perceivable reality. This is in opposition to the idea that shamanic visionary insights are merely a repetition of wisdom that has been passed down through generations by the cultural group and is experienced emphatically in trance states that are simply a subconscious affirmation of externally learned ideas (Noll 1985). Mckenna, and the shamanic cultures he replicates, believe that they are traversing other planes of existence and although they deny that their journeys are subjective they affirm that the knowledge they bring back can be applied and communicated to their cultural group.
Luke supports McKenna’s suggestion that trance states can reveal experiences that do not have obvious cultural links for the individual. In a study of mystical experiences in trance states it was reported that a variety of visions containing seemingly random creatures and objects similar in their peculiarity to those described by McKenna were experienced. These creatures could not be attributed to any obvious cultural link for the people involved much like the machine elves reported by Mckenna. These random beings acted as guides and purveyors of knowledge and were separate from any traceable cultural source (Luke 2006).
Mckenna played the role of a teacher in the books he wrote about these experiences in which he vividly described the visions themselves. Academic literature does not frequently portray descriptively the occurrences in trance states. Most evidence is purely anecdotal as is the case with Mckenna’s descriptions which he himself readily admitted were inadmissible scientifically. He proclaimed that his field of research was beyond the ability of science to record at any length. He also developed unique theories about the plight of western civilisation including an apex of evolution which he believed would occur in the year 2012.
One of the primary roles of the shaman is to develop a relationship with people by bringing back information from this other world to share with them (Wooten 2007). McKenna did so within his theories and his warnings as to the plight of western civilisation. In a shamanic sense McKenna’s spiritual students were members of western culture that sympathised with his rejection of its methodology. Some of the issues that McKenna mentioned frequently in his teachings include; The need to move beyond an unchallenged dominant culture that has reigned supreme for thousands of years; The suppression of the ego to defeat the proliferation of the dominators and materialists within modern culture; A renewed focus on immediate experience as opposed to living in the glories of the past or desires of the future, and, the importance of the self in its ability to achieve states of consciousness that he considers to be more profound and significant than exploring the outer regions of physical space. There is also a denial that science should be the only approved method of obtaining valid knowledge (Mckenna 1992, 1993, 1999). Science may be just another culturally specific phenomenon that is superseded in the near future. Such social commentary is a common element within neo-shamanism according to a study of experienced neo-shamans (Burkett 2005). To travel to another dimension and return with an ominous warning and proposed methods of action is central to shamanic practise and widely evident in McKenna’s writings and experiences.
Mckenna’s life work was essentially to present an antithesis to the popularised reality construct associated with western society. He did so by connecting with the reality construct of shamanistic cultures that taught him practical methods for obtaining knowledge through trance states. He played the role of a pioneer by seeking methods of interpreting reality that are beyond the scope of science. Mckenna employed a method that was used in the past in a smaller cultural or tribal setting and applied it in a wider social sense. This correlates with the idea that the shamans visions are applicable to a cultural context with appropriate spirits and knowledge being relayed back to the people. Mckenna’s cultural context or tribe was contemporary western society and the knowledge he brought back and conveyed contained information that was relevant to this wider social group. This may also suggest that the kind of knowledge obtainable in forays to the spirit world is universally true, a kind of over-arching wisdom. It has been applied in unrelated nomadic cultures across the world for thousands of years and can also be applied to the complexities of a massive global society which is reflected in the comparative complexity of the knowledge put forward by Mckenna.
References
Burkett, T. (2005). “A Psychological Inquiry into Neoshamanic Practise”, Revision, vol. 27 no. 3. pp. 3-7.
Goulet, J. & Young, D. (1994) “Theoretical and Methodological issues”, pp. 298-335.
Luke, D & Kittenis, M. (2006). “A Preliminary Survey of Paranormal Experiences with Psychoactive Drugs”, The Journal of Parapsychology, pp. 305-327.
Mckenna, T. (1999). “Food of the Gods”, Bantam New Age Books.
Mckenna, T. (1993). “The Invisible Landscape”, Harper Collins, New York.
Mckenna, T. (1992). “Tryptamine Hallucinogens and Consciousness”, Harper Collins, San Francisco.
Noll, R. (1985) “Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism”, Current Anthropology, vol 26. No. 4. pp. 443-461.
Wooten, R. (2007). “The Shamanic Journey: Tapping the Spiritual Wisdom Within”, Journal of Heart-Centred Therapies, vol. 10. no. 1. pp. 3-8.
Winkelman, M. (1997) “Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour”, Anthropology of Religion, ch. 15. pp. 394-428.
The Dalai Lama as a Modern Day Shaman
The word, Shaman, tends to invoke thoughts and images of a witch doctor, priest or a spiritual leader, unfamiliar ceremonies and rituals, dancing and feathered headdresses. For a variety of reasons, Shamanism has become closely associated with Native American culture, and it is important to realise that Shamanism is a lot more universal than many people imagine. The typical Hollywood stereotype portrays Shamans as often evil, devious Native Americans, and individuals with powerful abilities allowing them to contact and manipulate the spirit world. However it is important to realise that Shamanism is not exclusive to any culture, and may be a lot closer to home than many people might think. In reality, Shamanism is comprised of a complex range of beliefs and practices, and is a part of many different cultures, spiritual practices and religions. (Mircea, 1964) Many religious and community leaders today, share a lot of qualities that may not seem obvious, but are linked to the traditional idea of Shamanism.
In the traditional sense, a Shaman is the mediator between a community and the spiritual world. A Shaman is also a healer both physically and mentally and is quite often regarded very highly as a powerful and caring leader. (Mircea, 1964) It is argued that the word itself originated from Siberian tribes and was used to refer to the traditional healers who were described as, “he or she who knows”. (Czaplicka, 1914) Whether this is a fact or not, it is true that Shamans are experts on their belief systems, culture and community, and are able to gain the trust and power which enables them to be prominent leaders of their community.
The idea of a modern day Shaman does not necessarily have to be a label exclusively applied to someone who has continued the practice of traditional Shamanism. There are many individuals who live completely different lives and practice their beliefs completely unlike Shamans of the traditional sense, however they share the same goals and general beliefs that a native Shaman may have had for their community. One such individual in today’s modern society is the Dalai Lama.
The Dalai Lama is the head of state, and the spiritual leader of Tibet. Not only does he have an enormous influence on Tibetan people, his teachings have influenced people from different cultural and spiritual backgrounds all around the world. The Dalai Lama has given people hope, peace, and understanding, just as a Shaman would be required by their community.
As leader of Tibetan spirituality, the Dalai Lama is obviously heavily involved in Tibetan Buddhism. A major practice of Tibetan Buddhism is meditation. The form of meditation most common to Tibetan Buddhism is analytic meditation and focused meditation. Analytic and focused meditation involves focusing on a thought, and in depth consideration. It is encouraged that the individual engages in an internal debate within their mind until realisation is achieved. Once realisation is achieved, it is like an answer to a solution is discovered, and this answer is focused on for an extensive period of time. (Wallace, 1999)
Similar to Shamanism, this engagement into a trance-like state allows the Dalai Lama to focus on issues that are political, spiritual and crucial to the people of Tibet and the rest of the world. For a man who describes himself as a “simple Buddhist monk”(Verhaegen, 2002) he has inspired millions of people around the world. This positive inspiration created by a single individual is a sure sign of someone who has a spiritual power, characteristic of a Shaman.
The Dalai Lama’s teachings encourage happiness, religious harmony, peace and the protection of the environment. In his speeches he gives advice, and answers many difficult questions that are posed. It is not uncommon for the Dalai Lama to engage in lengthy question and answer sessions after his public talks. (Verhaegen, 2002)It seems that millions of people find comfort in his words, and his advice. A Shaman may play an integral role in healing members of the community, and the comfort and emotional wellbeing the Dalai Lama extends upon so many people can also be seen as a form of healing. The Dalai Lama may not be physically healing people like a Shaman of the traditional sense does, but it is clear that he has a positive effect on many peoples’ minds and souls.
As a mediator for the community, the Dalai Lama has played a huge role, especially since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1949. The Dalai Lama was forced into exile in 1959, and since then, has fought a non-violent struggle for the liberation of Tibet, which resulted in him being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. It is this constant non-violent battle that gives so many people hope for peace and liberation. (Verhaegen, 2002) It is his compassion and belief for inter-religion harmony that influences so many people to be happy.
It may be difficult to understand how exactly the Dalai Lama can be perceived as a modern day Shaman, however a brief summary of the reasons should make it clear. Just like a Shaman, the Dalai Lama practices a ritual that allows him to focus on an issue to try and conceive an answer. There may not be drumming or chanting, but nevertheless, the Dalai Lama enters an altered state of consciousness to seek answers to a variety of issues. The Dalai Lama then humbly preaches what he believes, and what he has learnt through meditation. His teachings are healing, comforting and encouraging to millions of people. The Dalai Lamas goal is to restore harmony to Tibet and its people, as well as even broader issues such as promoting world peace. Similarly to a Shaman healing and comforting members of their community, followers of the Dalai Lamas teachings find comfort in his words.
It is clear that spirituality is the foundation of the Dalai Lama’s beliefs. His position in the world community as a spiritual leader and the process involved in his method of teaching and practicing can be compared to the role of a Shaman. To have such a universal influence shows that not only are his teachings powerful, but that some aspects of Shamanism – healing, guiding and to finding answers through an altered state of consciousness – are also a universal part of many religions and cultures.
References:
Mircea, E. (1964). Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy. Bollingen Series LXXVI, 3-7
Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). Types of Shaman. Shamanism in Sibera. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in Social Anthropology.
Wallace, B. A. (1999). The Buddhist Tradition of Samatha: Methods for Refining and Examining Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (2-3), 175-187.
Verhaegen, A. (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies (15), 6.
In the traditional sense, a Shaman is the mediator between a community and the spiritual world. A Shaman is also a healer both physically and mentally and is quite often regarded very highly as a powerful and caring leader. (Mircea, 1964) It is argued that the word itself originated from Siberian tribes and was used to refer to the traditional healers who were described as, “he or she who knows”. (Czaplicka, 1914) Whether this is a fact or not, it is true that Shamans are experts on their belief systems, culture and community, and are able to gain the trust and power which enables them to be prominent leaders of their community.
The idea of a modern day Shaman does not necessarily have to be a label exclusively applied to someone who has continued the practice of traditional Shamanism. There are many individuals who live completely different lives and practice their beliefs completely unlike Shamans of the traditional sense, however they share the same goals and general beliefs that a native Shaman may have had for their community. One such individual in today’s modern society is the Dalai Lama.
The Dalai Lama is the head of state, and the spiritual leader of Tibet. Not only does he have an enormous influence on Tibetan people, his teachings have influenced people from different cultural and spiritual backgrounds all around the world. The Dalai Lama has given people hope, peace, and understanding, just as a Shaman would be required by their community.
As leader of Tibetan spirituality, the Dalai Lama is obviously heavily involved in Tibetan Buddhism. A major practice of Tibetan Buddhism is meditation. The form of meditation most common to Tibetan Buddhism is analytic meditation and focused meditation. Analytic and focused meditation involves focusing on a thought, and in depth consideration. It is encouraged that the individual engages in an internal debate within their mind until realisation is achieved. Once realisation is achieved, it is like an answer to a solution is discovered, and this answer is focused on for an extensive period of time. (Wallace, 1999)
Similar to Shamanism, this engagement into a trance-like state allows the Dalai Lama to focus on issues that are political, spiritual and crucial to the people of Tibet and the rest of the world. For a man who describes himself as a “simple Buddhist monk”(Verhaegen, 2002) he has inspired millions of people around the world. This positive inspiration created by a single individual is a sure sign of someone who has a spiritual power, characteristic of a Shaman.
The Dalai Lama’s teachings encourage happiness, religious harmony, peace and the protection of the environment. In his speeches he gives advice, and answers many difficult questions that are posed. It is not uncommon for the Dalai Lama to engage in lengthy question and answer sessions after his public talks. (Verhaegen, 2002)It seems that millions of people find comfort in his words, and his advice. A Shaman may play an integral role in healing members of the community, and the comfort and emotional wellbeing the Dalai Lama extends upon so many people can also be seen as a form of healing. The Dalai Lama may not be physically healing people like a Shaman of the traditional sense does, but it is clear that he has a positive effect on many peoples’ minds and souls.
As a mediator for the community, the Dalai Lama has played a huge role, especially since the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1949. The Dalai Lama was forced into exile in 1959, and since then, has fought a non-violent struggle for the liberation of Tibet, which resulted in him being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. It is this constant non-violent battle that gives so many people hope for peace and liberation. (Verhaegen, 2002) It is his compassion and belief for inter-religion harmony that influences so many people to be happy.
It may be difficult to understand how exactly the Dalai Lama can be perceived as a modern day Shaman, however a brief summary of the reasons should make it clear. Just like a Shaman, the Dalai Lama practices a ritual that allows him to focus on an issue to try and conceive an answer. There may not be drumming or chanting, but nevertheless, the Dalai Lama enters an altered state of consciousness to seek answers to a variety of issues. The Dalai Lama then humbly preaches what he believes, and what he has learnt through meditation. His teachings are healing, comforting and encouraging to millions of people. The Dalai Lamas goal is to restore harmony to Tibet and its people, as well as even broader issues such as promoting world peace. Similarly to a Shaman healing and comforting members of their community, followers of the Dalai Lamas teachings find comfort in his words.
It is clear that spirituality is the foundation of the Dalai Lama’s beliefs. His position in the world community as a spiritual leader and the process involved in his method of teaching and practicing can be compared to the role of a Shaman. To have such a universal influence shows that not only are his teachings powerful, but that some aspects of Shamanism – healing, guiding and to finding answers through an altered state of consciousness – are also a universal part of many religions and cultures.
References:
Mircea, E. (1964). Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy. Bollingen Series LXXVI, 3-7
Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). Types of Shaman. Shamanism in Sibera. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in Social Anthropology.
Wallace, B. A. (1999). The Buddhist Tradition of Samatha: Methods for Refining and Examining Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (2-3), 175-187.
Verhaegen, A. (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies (15), 6.
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